Handwork in Wood

The Tools. Every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observing. (1) It is an old saying that there should be "a place for everything and everything in its place." This is eminently true of a well-ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as important. (2) Things of the same sort should be arranged together, and arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. In arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. In the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another. Where the rack must needs be high, all the tools can be brought within reach, by placing long tools, like files, screwdrivers, etc., at the top. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 239.

As to the individual benches, those without high backs are to be preferred, not only because of their convenience when it is desired to work on large pieces, like table tops, and because the backs do not interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to look over the room to see that everything is in order. If the equipment is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place.

In general, there are two methods of keeping guard over tools, the open and the closed. In the open method, everything is kept in sight so that empty places can be discovered readily. This method is a convenient one, and, besides, the tools are always easily accessible. In the closed method, the tools are kept in drawers and cases where they can be locked up. This method is suitable where pupils are equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. In such a case, the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual pupils' tools in separate drawers. This method has the disadvantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediately. On the other hand, where the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum. Sometimes a combination of both methods is tried, the tools being kept in unlocked drawers. This method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing.

Even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious difficulties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. Pupils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not where they belong. Labels at the places of the different sets may help somewhat; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. Pupils will see that, when they will not stop to read a label.

In spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. A plan to cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. Then at the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is returned pro rata.

There is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches. Some tools, like the plane and chisel, and try-square, are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand. As to others, the demand must determine the supply. One other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be discouraged, should be kept remote. Some tools, like files, it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for.

A cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in Fig. 240, for holding nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a material aid in preserving the order of the shop.

As for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To clean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli. They may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli.

The Lockers. In order to maintain good order in the shop, an almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding the unfinished work of pupils. An inexpensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and 18" long, Fig. 241. Ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of shelves to conceal and protect the contents. Such a case should cost at the rate of about 40c. for each compartment. A more substantial and more convenient case, shown in Fig. 242, consists of compartments each 9½" high, 6" wide, and 18" deep. These proportions may be changed to suit varying conditions. In front of each tier of 12 compartments is a flap door opening downward. Such a case built of yellow pine (paneled) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per compartment.

There should, of course, be a separate compartment for each pupil using the shop. Where possible, there should be a special table for staining and gluing. Where strict economy must be practiced, a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc.

Where no staining-table is possible, temporary coverings of oilcloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose.

Care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood. Shellac should be kept in glass or pottery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin, which darkens it. A good plan is to have a bottle for fresh, untouched shellac, a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used, and an enameled cup for use. There should also be a special brush, Fig. 244. At the time of using, first see that the brush is soft and pliable. If it is stiff, it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. This alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. Then pour out a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with some fresh shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. What little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cup until required. The important things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only, (indeed, it is a good plan to label them "SHELLAC ONLY,") and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate. In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to be frequently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar.

Varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using. If they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty.

Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with water and then laying them flat in a box. Cups in which the water stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water.

Brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good condition, by being hung in a brush-keeper, Fig. 245, (sold by Devoe & Reynolds, 101 Fulton St., N. Y. C.) partly filled with turpentine. The same brushes may also be used for fillers.

Oil stains should be poured back into their respective bottles, and the cups wiped out with cotton waste. When they get in bad condition, they can be cleaned readily after a preliminary soaking in a strong solution of potash. The same treatment may be given to brushes, but if they are left soaking too long in the solution, the bristles will be eaten off.

EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP

* For general bibliography, see p. 4.

CHAPTER VII.

THE COMMON JOINTS.

Wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we have what is properly called joinery. In common usage the term indicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships, but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of constructing furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage-maker, and cooper. Since joinery involves the constant use of joints, a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and directions for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers in wood.

HEADING JOINTS

Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7. A scarf or spliced joint is made by joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in No. 4; tension, as in No. 5; both, as in No. 6, where the scarf is tabled; or cross strain as in No. 7. No. 4 is used in house sills and in splicing out short posts, Nos. 5 and 6 in open frame work. No. 7 with or without the fish-plate, is used in boats and canoes, and is sometimes called a boat-builder's joint, to distinguish it from No. 4, a carpenter's joint. A joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction of the strain than across it. No. 7 is the plan, not elevation, of a joint to receive vertical cross strain.

Fig. 248 illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in which the joints are made in this way. The cross-lap joints of the stretchers are first glued together, then the other joints are assembled without glue, to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite sides are glued at a time. Pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs.

In case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate the holes properly. One method of procedure is as follows: To dowel the end of one member against the face of the other as a stringer into a rail or a rail into a table leg, first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member, X, Fig. 249. Gage a center-line, A B, across this end lengthwise, locate the centers of the dowel-holes, and square across with a knife point, as CD and EF. Gage a line on the other member to correspond with the line AB. On the face so gaged, lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies along this gaged line and prick off the points D and F, to get the centers of the dowel-holes.

If, as is usual, there are a number of similar joints to be made, a device like that shown in Fig. 249 will expedite matters. 1 and 2 are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood, which has been notched out, and are as far apart as the dowels. A-1 is the distance from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel. The same measure can be used from the end of the leg.

When the centers are all marked, bore the holes. Insert the dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly. If any rail is twisted from its proper plane, note carefully where the error is, take apart, glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it off flush with the surface, and re-bore in such a place that the parts, when assembled will come up true. When everything fits, glue and clamp together.

No. 10. A draw-bolt joint is made by inserting an iron bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut inserted from the side of the second member. It is very strong and is used in bench construction, wooden machinery, etc.

The two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see Chap. IX, p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across the other in the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y, on one arris, and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the upper piece, X. From this point square across Y with the knife and try-square. Lay X again in its place, exactly along the line just scored. Then mark with the knife on Y the width of X, which may then be removed and the second line squared across Y. From these two lines square across both edges of Y to approximately one-half the thickness. Now turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark it in the same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit.

Cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks, Fig. 91, p. 66, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and 71, p. 56.

The bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford surface for gluing. When well made, a cross-lap joint does not need to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands.

No. 25. A dado or grooved joint is made by cutting in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other member fits. Properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado. Where the whole of the end of one member is let into the other, such a dado is also called a housed dado. Treads of stairs are housed into string boards.

To lay out a dado joint: After carefully dressing up both pieces to be joined, locate accurately with a knife point, on the member to be dadoed, called X, one side of the dado, and square across the piece with a try-square and knife. Then locate the other side of the dado by placing, if possible, the proper part of the other member, called Y, close to the line drawn. If this method of superposition is not possible, locate by measurement. Mark, with a knife point, on X, the thickness thus obtained. Square both these lines as far across the edges of X as Y is to be inserted. Gage to the required depth on both edges with the marking-gage.

To cut the joint: First make with the knife a triangular groove on the waste side of each line, as indicated in Fig. 91, p. 66, and starting in the grooves thus made, saw with the back-saw to the gaged lines on both edges. The waste may now be taken out either with a chisel or with a router, Fig. 122, p. 83. The second member, Y, should just fit into a dado thus made, but if the joint is too tight, the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel. In delicate work it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only the knife and chisel.

To make this joint, first lay out the dovetail on the member to be inserted, called Y, thus: Across one end square a line (A B, No. 28), at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in. Set the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail, Fig. 250. Score this angle on the edges of the member, as at C D. Cut a groove with a knife on the waste side of A B. Saw to the depth A C, and chisel out the interior angle A C D.

Then lay out the other member, X, thus: mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of Y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado. Lay out the thickness of Y on the face of X by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point. Gage the required depth on the edges. Now with the bevel-square as already set, lay out the angle A C D on the edges of X, and across the face at C score a line with knife and try-square. Cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado, and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle. Chisel or rout out the waste and when complete, fit the pieces together.

A gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. Knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. Before sawing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth. To avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately, a little at a time, till the required depth is reached. It is easy to measure the depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper amount from a trial stick, Fig. 251. The use of the router, Fig. 122, p. 83, facilitates the cutting, and insures an even depth.

MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINTS

The tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the part left in the middle. The mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is made slightly deeper than the tenon is long. The sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "shoulders" of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece.

To make a blind mortise-and-tenon, first make the tenon thus: Locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and square entirely around the piece. On the working edge near the end mark the thickness of the tenon. Set the marking-gage at the proper distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. Reset the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same way from the working face. Then mark and gage the width of the tenon in the same way. Whenever there are several tenons of the same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all back cheeks. If a mortise-gage is available, use that. Always mark from the working face or working edge. Cut out a triangular groove on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a dado, Fig. 91, p. 66.

In cutting the tenon, first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines, then crosscut at the shoulder lines. Do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting. If the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts. It is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise.

Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished piece. Then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. As in the case of like tenons, if there are a number of mortises all alike, set the gage only twice for them all.

In cutting the mortice, first fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench. This may be done either in a tail vise or by a handscrew, or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. Then tap the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held tightly down on the bench. See Fig. 76, p. 58.

It is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. Take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 137, p. 86, and no deeper than necessary. Dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines, taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise perpendicular to the face. This may be tested by placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a try-square with its head resting on the surface.

Finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. The tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint.

Many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. For this purpose a mortise-chisel, Fig. 68, p. 54, is desirable. The method is to begin at the middle of the mortise, placing the chisel—which should be as wide as the mortise—at right angles to the grain of the wood. Chisel out a V shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, and then from this hole work back to each end, occasionally prying out the chips. Work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise.