CHAPTER XLIV.

THE ARMENIANS.—EDUCATION.

1872.

The common school is as much a necessity in mission fields, as it is that the people should be able to read the Word of God; and it has everywhere been a primary object of attention; but always, and more especially of late years, with the aim and expectation, that it will speedily derive its support from the parents of the children.

Properly conducted, the tendency of the common school is to development. Teachers are learning all the while; new branches of study are introduced; there is greater thoroughness in the teaching and discipline; till at length the Academy is evolved, and perhaps the College.

This would be the natural order of development, were general education the leading object of missionary societies. But the unevangelized nations must be evangelized, and chiefly by their own people. Consequently one of the first efforts is to raise up teachers and preachers.

Enough has probably been said, in this history, respecting the common schools. So, also, of the Seminary at Bebek, instituted in 1840,[1] and the Girls' Boarding-school in the metropolis, instituted in 1845.[2] The Bebek Seminary was in some respects the forerunner of "Robert College." But however suitable its proximity to the capital may have been, regarding it as an incipient college, the location was not well adapted, on the whole, for a school to raise up young men for pastoral work in the towns and villages of the interior. Hence its discontinuance in 1862, and the opening of a training Seminary in Marsovan, in 1865. The delay of three years was owing to peculiar and unexpected causes. The Girls' Boarding-school at Constantinople was also discontinued for similar reasons, and was reopened at Marsovan in 1865.

[1] See Chapter xxxiii.

[2] See Chapter xxxiii.

A highly intelligent Armenian gentleman thus addressed Dr. Hamlin: "The Bebek Seminary has given birth to influences, which have waked up our young men all over the land; and you are regarded as a public benefactor, although you can never be regarded as our religious guide. Still, in sentiment, you have—not eight thousand, but eight hundred thousand followers. We shall never be called Protestants; it is not an Armenian term; but we hope to see the day when the Armenian Church will be as evangelical as yours."

The present Theological Seminaries are at Harpoot, Marsovan, Marash, and Mardin. There are, besides these, theological classes at Cesarea, Broosa, Sivas, Harpoot, Bitlis, Erzroom, and Eski Zagra. The first of the four seminaries above named originated in 1859, the second, in 1865, the third in 1868; and the fourth, in 1870. Like similar institutions in the United States, they are intended to receive only such as not only give evidence of piety, but are promising candidates for the gospel ministry. The course of study at Harpoot illustrates, substantially, the education given, or contemplated, in each of those institutions.

For the first year, Exegesis, the Synoptic Gospels and Pentateuch, the Turkish and Ancient Armenian languages, Algebra, Physiology, Reading, Writing, and Spelling Armenian.

For the second year, Exegesis, Isaiah, Daniel, and Revelation,
Geometry, Natural Philosophy, and Astronomy, Rhetoric in Ancient
Armenian, Evidences of Christianity (Turkish).

For the third year, Exegesis, Acts, Pauline Epistles, except
Romans and Hebrews, Mental Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, and
Theology.

For the fourth year, Exegesis, Pastoral Epistles, Romans, Hebrews, and Gospel of John, Sermonizing, Pastoral Theology, Church History, and Logic.

Weekly exercises in composition and declamation through the first three years; and lectures on Physical Geography, Geology, History, and Chronology, and lessons in singing, distributed through the course at convenience.

The female boarding-schools are mainly designed to educate teachers, Bible-readers, and wives for native teachers and pastors. They are in Marsovan, Aintab, Marash, Harpoot, Mardin, Bitlis, Erzroom, and Samokov. The pupils in the theological seminaries and classes, and in the female boarding-schools, as reported in the year 1871, were as follows:—

                           Theological Theological Female
                            Seminaries. Classes. Boarding-schools.
WESTERN TURKEY. Marsovan. 26 - 38
                Cesarea. - 5 -
                Broosa. - 13 -
                Sivas. - 2 -
CENTRAL TURKEY. Aintab. - - 20
                Marash. 35 - -
EASTERN TURKEY. Harpoot. 17 25[1] 34
                Mardin. 5 - 5
                Bitlis. - 9 20
                Erzroom. - 6 8
                              ——- ——- ——-
                Total. 83 60 125

[1] More properly called a "Normal school."

Thus the number in training for the gospel ministry, in 1871, was one hundred and forty-three, and the number in the female boarding-schools was one hundred and twenty-five.

The Marsovan Seminary commenced with eight pupils, and the number was increased in two years to twenty-four. Classes were organized at the stations, to prepare candidates for admission to the seminary, and to train such helpers as were not to take the full course of study. The plan of instruction in the seminary has recently been enlarged so as to include the training of native agents for the Greek-speaking races of southwestern Asia Minor. Eight young men, who graduated in 1869, received licenses to preach from the "Central Evangelical Union," and were in great demand. Thirteen were thus commissioned in 1870, in which year a convenient seminary building was finished.[1]

[1] See Chap. xxiv. p. 17; Report of the Board for 1870, p. 21; and Missionary Herald for 1869, pp. 87, 122, 257; and for 1871, p. 109.

Mr. Wheeler has given a full and interesting description of the theological and female Seminaries at Harpoot, in his valuable work, entitled "Ten Years on the Euphrates," and to that the reader is referred.[1] Eighteen pupils graduated in 1863, seven in 1865, and eleven in 1867; of whom thirty-two became pastors, preachers, or helpers.

[1] Ten Years on the Euphrates, pp. 162-221.

Theological classes were taught at Aintab and Marash, as early as 1860. It was resolved, eight years afterwards, in view of the greater number of students at Marash, that the Theological Seminary, then about being established, should be at that station. The examination of the students of this seminary in 1869, drew together an audience of a thousand persons. Thirty-three students were here in the following year, and it was necessary for the resident missionaries to give themselves almost wholly to their instruction; while the work in the city and at the out-stations was committed to the churches in Marash. That was a year of growth and prosperity to these churches; sixty-six new members being added to them on profession of faith. A new class of eighteen members was received in October.

The Seminaries at Mardin are conducted on the same principles as those at Harpoot. They are comparatively new, and are designed to reach the race speaking the Arabic language.

The training-school at Tocat was broken up by the fire, which consumed the mission premises in 1859.

A very valuable high school was taught for some years at Aintab, by Mr. Alexan; who was transferred to Marash, in 1864, as assistant teacher in the new Theological Seminary.

Thirty-five pupils attended the female Seminary at Marsovan in 1869, and many of them were hopefully converted. In 1870 there were forty pupils.

A majority of the young men in the Seminary at Harpoot were married, and one main design of the female seminary at that station was the education of their wives. These kept house for their husbands, and attended school about seven hours a day, five days of the week. Their younger children were committed to the care of a woman employed for the purpose, while the older ones went to one of the city schools. Of the ninety-four connected with the seminary previous to 1867, forty-one were hopefully converted while in it. Their chief text-book was the Bible; and some of them, besides learning to read intelligently, and to write, keep accounts, and know something of geography and astronomy, became intelligent students and expounders of the Bible, and, with hearts warm with love to Christ, proved themselves wise and efficient in winning souls to Him.[1] This institution has had several valuable teachers from the United States, prominent among whom was Miss Maria A. West.

[1] Ten Years on the Euphrates, p. 189.

The Female Boarding-school at Aintab was commenced under the care of Miss Proctor in 1861, with eight pupils. The number was increased to fourteen in 1864, and to twenty-five in 1867, of whom ten gave evidence of piety. It is one of the best schools in Turkey.

Mrs. Coffing's labors among the women of Marash, in 1867, and in the four schools of which she had the oversight, were of great value. In 1868, she had charge of a girls' high school, which was an institution of much promise. The pupils were thirty-eight, six of whom were wives of students in the Theological Seminary. Of the hundred girls who had been in this school from the beginning, twenty-one were hopefully converted while in the school. In 1872, a boarding department was added for the benefit of girls from the out-stations.

THE ROBERT COLLEGE.

This college has no direct connection with the American Board, nor with the mission as such; yet our history would be incomplete without some account of it.

The college may be said to have grown out of the efforts of Dr. Hamlin to furnish employment to Protestant Armenians, whose evangelical principles had thrown them out of business. For this end a flour mill and bakery were established with unlooked for success; and when the Crimean war broke out, very large quantities of bread were furnished by this Protestant bakery to the English troops and hospitals at Constantinople.

Christopher R. Robert, Esq., of New York, was then travelling in the East, and his attention was attracted to a large boat load of excellent bread en route from the bakery to the English camp. This led to further inquiries, and to an acquaintance and permanent friendship between himself and Dr. Hamlin.

The project of a college was first suggested by the sons of Dr. Dwight, one of the most honored founders of the Armenian mission; and a meeting for consultation, called by them, was held at the house of Mr. Robert in New York, in October, 1857. Several such meetings were held, but no agreement was reached as to the principles which should govern the College.

Mr. Robert, finding that nothing was to be done, then proposed to Dr. Hamlin to take up the work in coöperation with himself; which, after consulting his brethren and the officers of the American Board, he decided to do. I now quote from a statement kindly furnished me by Dr. Hamlin.

"While all agreed in the necessity of a higher education, there were various views in regard to the proposed College. Some regarded these three obstacles as insuperable. (1) The variety of races,—Turkish, Armenian, Greek, and Slavic,—which have no common sympathies, and would not unite in one institution. (2) Variety of religious faith,—Islamism, Romanism, the Oriental Orthodox, and Armenian Churches,—which could never agree in one institution. (3) Variety of language,—Greek, Armenian, Turkish, and Slavonic,—each of which would seek preëminence.

"It was decided, however, to make the experiment. The College was to be a Christian institution. The Bible was to be read, and prayer offered, morning and evening, at which all should be present. There would be Christian worship and Bible teaching on the Sabbath, but freedom of conscience would be sacredly regarded.

"The American civil war, breaking out in 1861 prevented any attempt to obtain an endowment in the United States, and Mr. Robert, who had already advanced $10,000 for the purchase of a site, then deposited $30,000 in the hands of trustees, in order to commence the work.

"The Turkish Government, at the instigation of Jesuit and French diplomacy, prevented the College from using the beautiful site it had purchased, although official leave to build there had been obtained from the department of Public Instruction. After much delay, expense, and fruitless effort, the College was opened in the building belonging to the American Board, and formerly known as the Bebek Seminary. It was called 'Robert College;' though without Mr. Robert's knowledge, because the name, having no special significance to the people there, would excite no local prejudice.

"The College, thus founded in 1863, slowly but steadily gained the confidence of the communities around it. During the fourth year of its existence, the building was filled with students, and was considerably enlarged. On the fourth of July, 1869, the corner-stone of a new and large building was laid on the purchased site, leave having been obtained after seven years' effort. The new building, capable of receiving two hundred and fifty students, was entered, and the college opened publicly, September 15th, 1871. It has so rapidly filled with students, that the Trustees have resolved to raise an endowment, and erect another still larger building, confident that it also will soon be filled.

ROBERT COLLEGE. [image]

"All the supposed obstacles have disappeared. There are seventeen nationalities and six religions represented in the College, and there are no peculiar difficulties of government. Two forces contribute mainly to unify the whole. (1) All are subject to the daily influence of Christian instruction. (2) All study the English language in the preparatory department, and the College course is wholly in that language.

"Another feature of the college should be noticed. It is self-supporting. It was designed to offer a sound Christian education to those who would pay for it. Two hundred dollars in gold are paid by every student for board and tuition forty weeks in the year. This is more for Turkey, than twice that sum would be in the United States.

"Mr. Robert has given nearly $175,000 for this institution, or more than fivefold what he originally contemplated.

"Nothing but the very highest education that can be attained, will now satisfy the Turkish community. Jesuit colleges have fallen into disrepute. They cannot meet this demand fairly, and satisfy it. New ideas of religious freedom pervade these communities; the old bonds are broken, and the college that gives the best culture, moral and mental, will be the most patronized by all. Missionary Societies cannot properly prosecute the work in this highest department of education. And yet foreign missions would be a failure if their work should stop in those classes where it usually begins. It must pervade and control the intelligence and enterprise of the land, and it cannot culminate in this result without the Christian College, and ultimately the Christian University."

PROPOSED COLLEGE IN THE INTERIOR.

As one result of the establishment of "Robert College" at Constantinople, a desire was awakened among the Protestants of Central Turkey for a similar institution, though on a less extended scale, and somewhat differently constituted; to be established either at Aintab, or Marash. Both places were anxious for the location, and set forth their claims with much ability, but the decision inclined in favor of Aintab. The subscriptions pledged by the people of that city, on condition of securing the college, were regarded by Dr. Schneider as equivalent to $60,000 of American money, or more than twenty dollars for each church-member, Nor were the offerings at Marash less liberal, in proportion to their means.

The idea appears to have had its origin with the people of Marash; who state that their own condition, the number and power of their enemies, and the baneful influences of infidelity among them, made them feel that the standard of education in the Theological Seminary ought to be so raised as to meet the exigency. The failure of this proposal suggested the college; and the plan of one, elaborated by a committee, was brought before the "Union." By that time, however, the Protestants of Aintab had become fully awake to the importance of the measure, and the claims of the two cities were so earnestly pressed, that the Union declined deciding between them, and referred the decision to the Prudential Committee of the American Board.

The very able pleas by the Protestants of the two cities drawn up in the spring of 1872, are before me, in the English language. The Aintab document opens with an interesting statement of their past progress in the matter of education. "We well remember," they say, "what our condition was, twenty-five or thirty years ago. We had then not even a thought about the necessity or advantages of education. A population of ten thousand Armenians was content with a single common school, where only reading and writing were taught. When, however, through the agency of the American Board, the Bible was translated into our modern language, it soon changed our opinions as to the importance of education, we can hardly explain how. Soon, the evangelical Armenians, not to speak of members of the Old Church, were not content with even three or four schools, nor were they satisfied with educating their sons, but began to plan for the education of their daughters. We discovered that mere reading and writing were not enough, and saw plainly the necessity of a higher grade of studies. Whereas once, we were hardly willing to send our children to schools where all the expense was borne by the missionaries, we were now anxious to open schools of a still higher character, and support them ourselves. We now realized, under the light of God's Word, that if men are to be good Christians, good fathers and mothers, and useful members of society, they must be educated. In this respect, our desires have been greatly strengthened by watching in our churches the constantly increasing demand for a stronger class of preachers and teachers. All the churches within the bounds of the Union are convinced of the necessity of a more thoroughly educated ministry. Hence the desire for a college in this section of the country."

The decision was in favor of Aintab in view of its greater financial ability, its centrality, its comparative healthfulness, the abundance of good building materials, the lower price of skilled labor, the prospective railway communication between the coast and the interior, the proper distribution of educational advantages (the Theological Seminary being already at Marash), and the interest felt by all classes at Aintab, including the Old Armenians and the Moslems.

CHAPTER XLV.

THE ARMENIANS. THE PRESENT CONDITION.

1872.

It seems often to be required of missions, though not properly, that they shall exert a vastly greater reforming influence on unevangelized countries, than the Gospel has yet done in Christian lands. When we speak of "the conversion of the world," we are generally understood as meaning the introduction of the "Millennium." But what we refer to is not the millennial state, but such a diffusion of gospel agencies and influences through the unevangelized world, as we see in the most favored Christian communities.

This is all that can reasonably be expected from missionary efforts. The Millenium, whether it be near or remote, doubtless implies such a previous extension of gospel agencies as we are now attempting, but will be the actual result of a universal outpouring of the Spirit, such as we are taught to expect when the time comes for the ultimate triumphs of the Christian dispensation.

The question naturally arises, in closing this History, how far progress has been made in evangelizing Turkey, or in preparing the way for its future evangelization. From the nature of the case, there can be only an approximation towards an exact reply; and perhaps none can be given more satisfactory, than is furnished by the narrative already recorded in these pages. Yet a brief notice of some of the more important facts, may reasonably be expected here.

It must not be supposed, that some of the first facts that will be mentioned are regarded as direct results of missionary effort, or as indications of evangelizing progress; but even these mark a progress in the condition of society, which is very cheering, and full of promise with reference to future efforts for the introduction and establishment of a true and pure religion; white others noticed have a more direct and full connection with the missionary work.

Where there has been intellectual and social progress on a large scale, we naturally look for material improvements. Turning, first of all, to the great metropolis, Dr. Wood testifies to such improvements as these: "The streets are named, and doors designated by numbers. Scavenger carts are supplanting the dogs. The terrible conflagrations have secured broad avenues, and handsome stone and brick structures, in place of mean wooden buildings, on streets so narrow that the sun could hardly enter them. Spacious flag-stone sidewalks are taking the place of the rough pavements of horrible memory, and macadamized roadbeds help one to climb the steep hill-sides of Constantinople. 'Tramways' are built or building, a boon of inexpressible value to the aged and feeble, and a thousand dwellings have been demolished for the track of the Belgrade and Vienna Railroad, entering at the Seven Towers, and carried along the Marmora, and around the Seraglio Point, to its terminus on the Golden Horn. The demolition of much of the sea-wall to make way for it and furnish materials for embankments, is a suggestive symbol of the social and religious reconstruction, which is tearing up old foundations, and using the labors of ages past for that which is to be."

Dr. Wood next instances the significant telegraph lines, running to all points of the compass, of which he counted twelve on one side of a street, and four on the other. "The spectacle of small craft on the waters, sea-going steamers of the largest class, smaller passenger-boats for the Bosphorus and ports on the Marmora, and the magnificent iron-clads anchored in front of the Sultan's palaces, impresses both residents and strangers with a vivid sense of the greatness, wealth, and power, which, in spite of mismanagement, corruption, misrule, and all the elements of weakness and decline in the country, are here concentrated."

"Costumes," he says, "are changing, and customs and ideas change with them. Even Turkish women are adopting Frank articles of dress, worn beneath the external covering, and go about tottering on high-heeled shoes of latest Parisian style; and Armenian women appear in public with unveiled faces, attired like ladies of Europe. Thirteen newspapers—three of them dailies, three tri-weeklies, and seven weeklies (one of which issues a daily bulletin), for Armenians alone, at the capital—attest a new intellectual life, by the fact of their existence, and by the freedom of their discussions.

"Schools for girls are multiplying; even a normal school for Turkish girls has been established under government patronage; but a still greater zeal is displayed for the education of boys. The notions of the people concerning education are, indeed, very faulty, and much of the instruction given is poor enough in quality; but the waking up on the subject heralds a brighter day in the future. That this is far greater among the Christian populations, than in the Mohammedan and Jewish, and that the former are gaining more and more upon the latter in the possession of wealth, is suggestive of coming events, of the highest interest and importance."

Dr. Clarke, Foreign Secretary of the Board, writing in the same year (1871), after his visit to the East, mentions the following indications of progress: "Hundreds of miles of railway, begun and under contract; telegraphic communication between the principal towns; postal arrangements for the conveyance of money, as well as letters, established within a few years between many places; police regulations, securing protection to life and property as never before; the suppression of robber-hordes, which had infested different sections; and the beginning of a newspaper press. The public mind in the great centres is waking up to what is going on in the outside world. The war in our own country, by its derangement of commerce, led to much inquiry; and the later conflicts in Europe have excited a lively interest in many minds. And not the least significant matter is the change of sentiment in reference to France and French influence. Already is it said by native merchants, that their children must learn English, or German, instead of French; and the power of Romanism, upheld so long by French consuls, is sensibly weakened. And Protestantism is quietly doing its work of enlightenment,—directly, in thousands of minds, and indirectly, in thousands more."

Mr. Adams, of Adana, writing a year earlier, affirms that the Christian populations are far more ready to hear and read the Gospel than is commonly supposed, and that the Protestant faith has found its way into the remotest corners of the land. He says, we should not measure the success of missions by "tabular views" alone, for it often happens that a missionary's strongest grounds of hope are quite outside of the largest array of figures. "As I write this," he adds, "a statement of Hagop Effendi occurs to me. He said: "I have travelled a great deal among the Protestants of Syria and Turkey, and the strongest impression I have does not arise from the schools, books, or churches, as pledges that Protestantism is to be a success in Turkey, but from the prodigious extent to which the country at large is leavened by Protestant truth. The grandest results of your labors are not apparent."

Another testimony is by Mr. Leonard, of Marsovan, under date of January, 1871. "Evidence," he says, "of a gradual reform in the Oriental churches, especially the Armenian Church, chiefly as the result of evangelical labors, crops out in almost every city. Consecrated pictures leave church walls for the garret; silver crosses go into the refining pot; auricular confession is neglected; many superstitious ceremonies and foolish restrictions, imposed by the priesthood, are regarded only as a curious relic of the past. We note, also, a growing friendliness towards Protestants, and occasionally very sensible efforts, in emulation of them, to educate the people."

Mr. Leonard doubtless had a special reference to the Armenian Bishop of Amasia, who, having secured a majority of the people in his favor, swept two churches of their gold and silver images, crosses, and vestments, and appropriated the avails to the erection of school-houses and the support of teachers. The minority appealed to the Patriarch at Constantinople; but he is known to have been in sympathy with the reforming party in the church before his election, while at Van and Moosh, and is said to have sanctioned the whole proceeding, and to have followed his sanction with an exhortation to preach the Gospel.[1]

[1] Report of the Board for 1871, p. 27.

Another testimony is from Mr. Wheeler, of Harpoot, written in April of the same year: "Henceforth we shall need less money, and more prayer; for this finishing of the work is, in some respects, even more perilous than was its beginning. The people expect and demand a thousand things, which they cannot now have; and sometimes the more earnest ones are inclined to take the missionaries by the throat, with a 'Pay us that ye owe!' We are encouraged by the reflection that such experiences necessarily enter into such a work of awakening and reform, as is here going on."

The testimony of Hagop Effendi, the Civil Head of the Protestants of Turkey, should also be adduced. He says: "The fact that eighty-five per cent. of the adults in the Protestant community can read, speaks greatly in favor of its members. Any one acquainted with the social condition and religious ideas of the Orient, who will take pains to compare them with the liberal institutions now introduced, can readily imagine the state of society that must necessarily follow such a change. As yet, the people do not possess the intellectual and moral elements necessary for the maintenance of the liberal institutions of Protestantism independent of foreign aid." "Those," he adds, "who have become Protestant in principle, far exceed in number the registered Protestants. The indirect influence of Protestantism has been greater and healthier than is apparent." He then instances the strictly sober habits of the Protestants, among whom the use of strong drink is very rare, and habitual drunkenness is hardly known. And he was everywhere gratified to find, throughout the empire, a great improvement in domestic relations, as compared with the condition of families before they became Protestants.

The districts of Harpoot, Aintab, and Marash are probably more advanced in the matter of self-governing, self-supporting, evangelical churches, than any other considerable portions of the field in Western Asia. The Rev. Herman N. Barnum, of the Harpoot station, while in the United States, drew up, at my request, a statement of some of the more important results of missionary labor in his own district, which may be regarded as illustrative of the results of missionary labor in other districts.

He states these as rules,—that no church is to be organized without a native pastor; that no church is to receive aid from the mission for more than one half the salary of the pastor, and none for more than five years. Eighteen churches have been formed in the district, with six hundred and fifty members, and most of them on this plan. The church at Harpoot was self-supporting from the outset. Wherever a fully organized and self-supporting church existed, the peculiar work of the missionaries was regarded as completed in that place; the church and pastor, rather than the missionaries, being henceforth held responsible for the evangelization of the surrounding community. The missionaries aid, if necessary, by their counsel and in other ways, but what they do is through the church. His response as to the character of the churches, which I necessarily abridge, is deemed applicable, substantially, to the seventy-four churches among the Armenians. He says:—

"1. They are becoming intelligent. Making the Bible a study, they become established in Christian doctrine.

"2. Church discipline is better maintained than it is in American churches. Their 'watch and care' are delightful to witness. Many of these Christians came out of the grossest corruption, but the fellowship of the church is a shield and a support.

"3. They are self-denying. The support of their own institutions, including the building of their school-houses and houses of worship, with very little missionary aid, necessitates the sacrifice of comforts which they cheerfully forego. Experience in Turkey has abundantly proved, that dependent churches are nearly worthless for evangelizing agencies. When the institutions of the Gospel are supported for them, they regard the work of extending it as belonging especially to the missionaries; and hence, however lavish the expenditure, they often complain that money is not more freely spent, and the work prosecuted on a grander scale. Complaints against missionaries come chiefly from churches doing little for themselves. On the other hand, self-supporting churches regard the work of propagating the Gospel as their own, and whatever is given them, they gratefully receive as aid in doing their own work.

"4. These churches resemble the primitive churches in their disposition to work for others. They are imbued with a spirit of labor. They go from house to house, reading and preaching the word. This is the theme in the shop, the field, and by the way-side.

"The chief source of discomfort is in the Armenian character itself, in which there is a lack of stability, and a want of perseverance. But there is ground for hope, that even this national trait may be overcome by the power of the Gospel.

"In Harpoot and its seventy out-station is a Protestant community of about five thousand souls, characterized by a remarkable reformation in the outward life. Many of them are doubtless Christians, who, in the great care which the churches use in receiving members to their fellowship, are in a certain sense on probation. The Protestant name has become a synonym for integrity and uprightness.

"The extent, to which the Gospel has affected the communities not Protestant, cannot be appreciated by one not in actual contact with them. It manifests itself partly in the weakened power of superstition, the multiplication of schools, the number of adults who have learned to read, the increase in general intelligence and knowledge of the truth, the decrease of intemperance and vice, the promotion of enterprise and good order; and, in short, the beginnings of a civilization, that has a Christian aspect. There have been sold at Harpoot about four thousand copies of the Bible, and twenty thousand portions of the same, with nearly fifty-five thousand volumes of other books, religious and educational, from the mission press. Large numbers of these have gone into the hands of the unevangelized, and are silently exerting an influence. This class of persons is always represented in our congregations. They hear the truth discussed everywhere, and thousands of them have accepted it intellectually, who have not yet separated themselves from their own religious communities. All this suggests the possibility of a rapid development, when the Spirit shall be poured out from on high.

"Were the Harpoot field limited to the district seventy miles square, of which the city is the centre, it might now be safely left, with its seminaries and hundreds of villages, to the eleven churches and the native laborers found there, with an annual grant, for a few years, from the American Board. As it is, there is good hope that, by the blessing of God on the means in use, the whole district, embracing more than twenty thousand square miles and half a million of souls, may, in a few years, be relinquished as a missionary field."

Some estimate may be formed of the influence exerted by the press, when it is considered that more than ten and a half millions of pages were issued, in the single year 1870, in the Armenian, Armeno-Turkish, Græco-Turkish, and Bulgarian languages; and that nearly three hundred millions of pages have been issued by these missions since they began their operations. The number of missionaries among the Armenians, in 1870, was forty, and of female assistant missionaries sixty.

When the missionaries entered Turkey, religion was administered wholly by the hierarchy, and had everywhere a stereotype form. Death was the penalty for heresy among the Moslems; and it was scarcely less in the prevailing sentiment of the nominal Christian sects. The history relates how far this obstacle existed, and how far it has been overcome. Whatever be true as regards thy ecclesiastics, the people have now accepted, in some good degree, the principle of religious freedom, and so has the government of the Sultan.

Before the institution of Protestant missions, the school-books among the Turks, Armenians, and Greeks were in the ancient languages, and the schools were consequently of little practical value. One of the first things done by the missionaries was the publication of school-books in the languages spoken by the people; and this simple movement took wonderfully with both Christians and Moslems, and has wrought a mighty revolution in the empire.

The principle of self-support in native churches appears now to be the well-defined policy of all the missions in Turkey, to be realized in practice at the earliest possible day. In some of the missionary districts, the forming of the church and the ordination of the pastor are expected to occur at the same time; and when aid is given it is only for a limited series of years; and the schools, and all other necessary agencies, are to be transferred at the earliest moment from the mission to the people themselves. As a general rule, the missionaries do not now take the lead in the building of school-houses and places of worship. They aid as may seem necessary; but the responsibility and chief pecuniary burden are left with the people; except where the power of precedent, from a different course, is too strong to be overcome at once.

The various testimonies embodied in this chapter will not affect all minds alike. Yet all must admit, that the Gospel has gained a deeper, firmer hold on the Armenians, than it ever had before, from the days of Gregory "the Illuminator" until now. A mental, moral, and social revolution is in progress, and mainly as a consequence of the republication of the Gospel by missionaries in the past half century; and there is no probability of any event occurring that shall be sufficient to arrest it. Doubtless great evil would result from extensive inroads of sectarian zeal. But there is hope of triumph even then,—from the Bible in their own language, brought by the press within reach of thousands of families, with fathers, mothers, and children able and free to read it; from self-governed, self-supported, self-propagating churches, scattered over the empire, each with its indoctrinated native pastor; from woman holding such a place in the family and social circle, as she never held before; and from common schools, and normal schools, and high schools, and theological seminaries, and even colleges, all independent of the hierarchy, and beyond the power of the Jesuits; with the logic of free thought, and a free conscience.

It would seem that it may not be needful greatly to enlarge the present number of missionaries among the Armenian people. The native ministers and native churches are the main thing. And it must be admitted, that the Gospel, through the grace of God, has been republished, and its institutions replanted, extensively and most hopefully in the Armenian Church of the Orient. "In the midst of fermentation," writes the Constantinople station in 1872, "the leaven of truth is making its way; and so is, also, that of infidelity; but the latter is temporary in its influence, the former permanent. There is far more Protestantism outside of the Protestant church than within it. Protestant ideas of truth, of liberty of conscience, of progress, are spread far and wide, and are convulsing these nations."

CHAPTER XLVI.

THE MOHAMMEDANS.

The necessity for republishing the Gospel among the Oriental Churches, in order to approach the Mohammedans successfully, was stated in the Introduction to this History.[1] It seems proper now to give some illustrations of the effect this republication is likely to have upon that people.

[1] See Volume i. pp. 1-6.

A large portion of the Mohammedan population of Turkey is undoubtedly of Christian origin, and therefore less firmly wedded to the Moslem faith and ritual, than are the Osmanly Turks. Three fourths of the four millions in European Turkey, are believed to be of this class. The Kuzzelbashes in Eastern Turkey have a tradition that their Christian ancestors were compelled to become Mohammedans, and they are now regarded by the Turks as little better than infidels; nor are the Koords in much higher repute. Of the Druzes enough was said in the first volume.[1]

[1] See Chapter xv.

Though the penalty of death for embracing the Christian religion has been abrogated in Turkey,[1] yet the convert from Mohammedanism does not feel himself free from danger of secret assassination. Far greater security of life and property is enjoyed by Protestant Armenians and Bulgarians, than by Protestant Turks. Indeed, it is not long since Protestant Turks had no security whatever; and in Persia, they have none now. When Koord, Kuzzelbash, and Turk shall feel as free to inquire, and to act on conviction, as the members of the nominally Christian sects, there are facts encouraging the belief, that large numbers of Moslems may be expected to embrace the Christian faith.

[1] See Chapters ix. and xxv.

There is no more satisfactory way of illustrating this than by a simple statement of some of the more important facts. Indeed, it is requisite to the completeness of this history, that these be now stated, since they were designedly omitted in the preceding pages, in their various connections, in order to be recorded here.

I begin with the year 1854, when the Imperial Firman of 1850 became known in the provinces.[1] Mr. Dunmore, on his way from Arabkir to Diarbekir, with Priest Kevork, spent the first night at a Moslem village. They had travelled in the rain, and were scarcely dry, says Mr. Dunmore, "when a company of Turks asked us to read to them from the New Testament, and tell them something of our belief. Kevork read to them from the Gospels, explaining, as he passed along, the precious teachings of our Lord, and closed with prayer. All listened attentively, and pronounced it, 'Good,' 'True,' 'Just.'"

[1] See Chapters xxiv. and xxv.

At another place, Mr. Dunmore found Turks desirous to hear the Gospel. "More than once," he says, "in passing through the streets, rich Moslem merchants called us into their shops, expressed their sympathy with us, and an earnest desire that we would remain. They called the Armenians to discuss questions with us, but the latter did so only when constrained by fear, or shame. We were frequently followed by a number of respectable Moslems, as we went from shop to shop to converse with the Armenians; and one day so many gathered about us that we could scarcely proceed on our way; all exclaiming, 'Right,' 'True,' 'Good,' to all that we said."

The Hutti Humaïoun was promulgated in 1855. In that year the Turkish
Scriptures were sold openly on the bridge between Galata and
Constantinople, no man forbidding.

In September, 1857, Dr. Hamlin described the official examination, at his house, of a family converted from Mohammedanism. It was made at the instigation of the mother of the wife, who was almost frantic at the baptism of her daughter and grandchild. "Our dear friends," wrote Dr. Hamlin, "stood firm as a rock, and at length the officers arose and said to me, as nearly as I can state; 'We are fully convinced that no compulsion has been used in this case, and, so far as we can see, the accusations of the mother are false. It is the will of his Majesty, our Sovereign, and it has become the law of the empire, that every subject, without exception, should enjoy entire religious freedom. The Mussulman is now as free to become a Christian, as a Christian is free to become a Mussulman. The government will know no difference in the two cases. It will only undertake, whenever an accusation of restraint or compulsion is brought, to ascertain the true state of the case; and then only in order to secure the most unexceptionable freedom of choice.'"

In May of the following year, Dr. Hamlin wrote, that Selim Effendi, a converted Mussulman employed as an evangelist among his countrymen, had many inquirers. "I think he conversed with eleven last week; among whom a woman expressed a very decided desire to embrace Christianity, but she was afraid of her son. Her son had sometimes expressed the same wish, but he was afraid of his mother! Selim introduced them to each other."

"Let the following statements be appreciated," said Dr. Schauffler, in September, 1858, "and the difference between the present and the former state of things will be better understood. (1.) The Imans and Ulemas are obliged to resort to moral suasion and entreaty. No threats of persecution are employed; the government takes no responsibility in these matters; the police has nothing to do with them. (2.) Although there are fewer purchasers of the New Testament, yet men buy it publicly, fearing no civil penalty. 'Why do you buy this infidel book?' says a bigot to a Mohammedan purchaser of the Gospel. He replies: 'I chose to buy it, and with my own money; you are welcome to mind your own business;' and so the matter ends. (3.) We hear of no search being made for the books in circulation among Mussulmans, No New Testaments have been burned yet, that we know of, by the Turks, as many copies have been by the Greek or Catholic priests and bishops."

Mr. Dunmore wrote, in the same year, after visiting thirty villages, mostly Kuzzelbash and Turkish: "I really felt ashamed, that in touring I had ever passed by a Turkish village, without stopping to point them to the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world? And I testify what I have seen, when I say, that the Turks are approachable; and many of them ready to listen to the Gospel; while others are anxious to search the Scriptures, and are restrained only by the pressure of fears, which, as yet, the Hatti-humaioun has scarcely begun to remove in this region."

I quote again from the same missionary: "At a Koordish village of twenty houses we spent two hours in preaching the Word to a company of thirty. One of them, who seemed to have received a few rays of light from enlightened men, boldly declared, that he believed the time was near, when the sword would no more be used to keep men in Moslem bonds, but that they all would soon be free to embrace the Gospel, if they wished. We spent a night at a Kuzzelbash village of forty houses. Immediately on our arrival, we had an audience of thirty or forty; and during the long evening, fifty or more listened to the great truths of the Gospel. We preached 'Christ crucified; the way, the truth, and the life;' and they received the word with eagerness. When the evening was far spent, we bowed together before the mercy-seat, after which our audience reluctantly retired. These are but samples of our visits among Kuzzelbashes and Turks on this tour."

Dr. Hamlin, speaking of Turks near the close of 1858, says: "There have been, here and there, some burnings of the New Testament; not publicly, but in private, or in small social circles. Among Mussulmans themselves a spirited debate has repeatedly arisen as to the moral character of the act. Some have approved, others have most decidedly condemned it, affirming that the New Testament is the Word of God. What impressed us most strongly is the bold manner in which orthodox Turks have declared it to be the Word of God, and that to burn it is a sin."[1]

[1] See Missionary Herald for 1858, p. 380.

Dr. Dwight wrote in May, 1859: "The work among the Turks is looming up; and if not hindered by some untoward event, or by our neglect, it will by and by assume very large proportions. That Turkish officials through the country have been instructed not to persecute Mohammedans who embrace Christianity, is very evident. The governors of Sivas, Cesarea, and Diarbekir have, to our knowledge, within a short time, and with actual cases before them, publicly declared, that a Mohammedan who became a Christian could not be molested."

Mr. White visited a place on the north of the Taurus Mountains in May, 1860, and had many calls from Mussulmans. "Every day they came," he says, "with an apparently sincere desire to learn the truth; and held long conversations on man's sinfulness, and how it was possible for God to forgive sin. 'We have lost God;' 'We have lost the road;' 'We cannot find God;' were expressions they used very often. At almost every meeting, from three to five Mussulmans were present. One is known all over the city as a Protestant; and a second is a member of the Governor's Council."

Mr. Herrick, speaking of the Turkish department in the Bebek Seminary, wrote thus, in the same year: "Quite a number of Mohammedans have renounced Islam, and become true Christians; many more are soberly inquiring after the truth; and many others are turning, unsatisfied, from a religion which cannot save, or wavering in a merely nominal devotion to Islamism. That which is most striking is the clear evidence, often, of the work of God's Spirit in individual cases, and in general movements."

Dr. Schneider gives this testimony concerning the Mussulmans at an out-station of Aintab: "There is a willingness among the Moslems here to listen to arguments in favor of Christianity, that is uncommon. By intercourse with Protestants, and the reading of the Scriptures, many of them have obtained glimpses of the truth, and a few are more or less convinced that Christianity is true. While I was there, fifteen Mussulmans and several women attended a service. Apparently there is no place in this region where there is so much prospect of a speedy work to be done among the Mussulmans."

The inducement to labor among the Moslems, was much increased in the year 1860. At one large town in the heart of Asia Minor, a Moslem said to a Protestant, "Since you came here, you have caused us to fall into doubt and fear." At another, a Turk and his wife appeared to be true Christians. Though the man was zealous in making known the Gospel, the Moslems agreed to ignore his being a Protestant. At Diarbekir, a Turk declared himself a Christian, and a captain of the army at Harpoot did the same. Many Turks in the latter region purchased the New Testament, and some the whole Bible. The military Pasha of this district bought a Bible publicly, and so did the civil Pasha; thus showing the effect of the thorough evangelization of that community. At Constantinople, Dr. Dwight reported his having read the Scriptures and bowed in prayer with a high officer of the army in the palace of a Pasha, in the Mussulman quarter of the city, and in the presence of servants; the officer appearing to be strongly under the influence of evangelical ideas and feelings. Six Moslem converts were baptized that year at the capital. One of these was an Iman, seventy years of age. There had then been fifteen baptisms of adult converts from Mohammedanism in Constantinople.[1] The Grand Vizier subsequently required the Serasker to call Abdi Effendi, the baptized Iman above mentioned, and examine him. This was done, and the old man made the following confession and statement: "We are no ghiaours (i. e. we worship neither pictures, nor crosses, nor saints); we assemble and read out of this book (drawing out of his bosom the New Testament); we sing out of this one (producing a Turkish Hymn Book); and we listen to preaching from the Gospel, and engage in prayer for all men. If there is anything wrong in this book, please point it out to me." He supposed (on inquiry) that there might be some forty men who were like him, and mentioned some of their names.

[1] In part, by English missionaries.

It would be easy to multiply illustrations like the foregoing of the susceptibility of Mohammedans to Christian influence; and the reader will notice that they are of the same general nature with the early manifestations of interest among the Armenians. There have been, also, Turkish converts, who braved death in their Christian profession, and remained steadfast unto the end.

No churches have been formed by our missionaries exclusively of Turkish Christians; and it can hardly be said, that the Board has yet had an organized mission to this people. Of the four missionaries sent especially to the Turks, Dr. Schauffler has devoted himself chiefly to translating the Scriptures into the Osmanli-Turkish; Mr. Herrick, besides doing service by his commentaries and other literary labors in that language, has been mainly employed in the Turkish department of the Theological Seminary, first at Bebek, and then at Marsovan; the younger Mr. Schauffler was born on the ground, as we may say, and began his labors amid the strifes of the Armenians in Constantinople with the missionaries, which was a great hindrance to his work, and the health of his family not allowing him to remain in Turkey, he is now a pioneer in the new mission to Austria; and Mr. Hutchison had scarcely entered the Turkish department of the Bebek Seminary, when the failure of his wife's health required a return to the United States. The mission of the Rev. James L. Merrick to the Persian Mohammedans, in 1834, was little more than a tentative exploration of the field, and was not continued.[1]

[1] It should be stated that the English Church Missionary Society has had a missionary to the Mohammedans in Constantinople since 1862, and reports five converts who are communicants. For the reactionary movement among the Turks at Constantinople, in consequence of the distribution of Dr. Pfander's Defense of Christianity against Mohammedanism, see page 234 of this volume.

With a field so inviting as the Armenian along side of the Mohammedan, it was not easy to obtain missionaries to the Moslems. Then again, missionaries to the Armenians soon became engrossed by their labors. "The Mohammedans," wrote Dr. Schauffler in 1859, "never will be cared for by missionaries to the Armenians or the Bulgarians. We can all render each other important services, but no missionary can take charge of two nationalities. Each one, soon after coming, finds his hands so full of business for which he feels responsible, that he cannot do much besides. Moreover, every man gets his sympathies enlisted for the people of his charge. This is probably necessary to enable us to labor with energy, and suffer with patience; but this needful concentration of feeling precludes the idea of universality in missionary labor."

Experience has also developed the great law here, as well as elsewhere, that the main work of winning races to Christianity must be performed by men of the same race. A Moslem will listen more patiently to a Christian Turk ("renegade" though he be), than he will to an Armenian; nor has it been found easy to enlist the Protestant Armenians effectively in labors for the Turks. It may be otherwise when the work is more advanced, and the Armenians are elevated to a higher social level. But a ministry raised from among themselves, is indispensable to the most efficient evangelization of the Turks.

It would seem, therefore, that, up to the present time, the original plan of the mission to Turkey has been more promising of good, than any other; namely, that of operating upon the Mohammedans through regenerated churches planted in the communities where they dwell; and the greatest usefulness of these churches, for obvious reasons, must be expected in the interior, rather than in the capital. Thus far, there has been no material or very obvious change in the missionary policy; and the risk of such a change, and its probable advantages on the whole, should be carefully estimated. The Protestant nations of Europe are substantially with us in our evangelical labors among the Oriental Churches; and the churches we gather are "our epistle," "known and read" by the Mohammedans. Gradually, it may be, some of the missionaries now in the field, who are familiar with the Turkish language, and have their Armenian churches supplied with pastors, will turn their attention mainly to the Moslems, in the exercise of a sound discretion, both as regards the Turks and the Christians. It may be found that both classes may be happily inclosed in the same fold. The missionary now occupies a higher and more influential position with both, than he did years ago. The Turk, too, is better appreciated as he becomes known. He has more of manliness, self-respect, and religious feeling, than some races for whose salvation our labors have been blest. The masses are by no means hopeless, and the middle class is full of promise.

The future is in the hands of the great Head of the Church; who has so crowned with success the past labors of his servants in Turkey, as to warrant the expectation, that whatever is needful to the effectual republication of the Gospel in those Bible lands, may be attempted with the glad assurance of success.