VII
THE HASSANIANS
The new rulers came from the Tafilelt, which has always been a troublesome corner of Morocco. The first two Hassanian Sultans were the usual tribal chiefs bent on taking advantage of Saadian misrule to loot and conquer. But the third was the great Moulay-Ismaël, the tale of whose long and triumphant rule (1672 to 1727) has already been told in the chapter on Meknez. This savage and enlightened old man once more drew order out of anarchy, and left, when he died, an organized and administered empire, as well as a progeny of seven hundred sons and unnumbered daughters.[A]
[Footnote A: Moulay-Ismaël was a learned theologian and often held religious discussions with the Fathers of the Order of Mercy and the Trinitarians. He was scrupulously orthodox in his religious observances, and wrote a treatise in defense of his faith which he sent to James II of England, urging him to become a Mahometan. He invented most of the most exquisite forms of torture which subsequent Sultans have applied to their victims (see Loti, Au Maroc), and was fond of flowers, and extremely simple and frugal in his personal habits.]
The empire fell apart as usual, and no less quickly than usual, under his successors; and from his death until the strong hand of General Lyautey took over the direction of affairs the Hassanian rule in Morocco was little more than a tumult of incoherent ambitions. The successors of Moulay-Ismaël inherited his blood-lust and his passion for dominion without his capacity to govern. In 1757 Sidi-Mohammed, one of his sons, tried to put order into his kingdom, and drove the last Portuguese out of Morocco; but under his successors the country remained isolated and stagnant, making spasmodic efforts to defend itself against the encroachments of European influence, while its rulers wasted their energy in a policy of double-dealing and dissimulation. Early in the nineteenth century the government was compelled by the European powers to suppress piracy and the trade in Christian slaves; and in 1830 the French conquest of Algeria broke down the wall of isolation behind which the country was mouldering away by placing a European power on one of its frontiers.
At first the conquest of Algeria tended to create a link between France and Morocco. The Dey of Algiers was a Turk, and, therefore, an hereditary enemy; and Morocco was disposed to favour the power which had broken Turkish rule in a neighbouring country. But the Sultan could not help trying to profit by the general disturbance to seize Tlemcen and raise insurrections in western Algeria; and presently Morocco was engaged in a Holy War against France. Abd-el-Kader, the Sultan of Algeria, had taken refuge in Morocco, and the Sultan of Morocco having furnished him with supplies and munitions, France sent an official remonstrance. At the same time Marshal Bugeaud landed at Mers-el-Kebir, and invited the Makhzen to discuss the situation. The offer was accepted and General Bedeau and the Caïd El Guennaoui met in an open place. Behind them their respective troops were drawn up, and almost as soon as the first salutes were exchanged the Caïd declared the negotiations broken off. The French troops accordingly withdrew to the coast, but during their retreat they were attacked by the Moroccans. This put an end to peaceful negotiations, and Tangier was besieged and taken. The following August Bugeaud brought his troops up from Oudjda, through the defile that leads from West Algeria, and routed the Moroccans. He wished to advance on Fez, but international politics interfered, and he was not allowed to carry out his plans. England looked unfavourably on the French penetration of Morocco, and it became necessary to conclude peace at once to prove that France had no territorial ambitions west of Oudjda.
Meanwhile a great Sultan was once more to appear in the land. Moulay-el-Hassan, who ruled from 1873 to 1894, was an able and energetic administrator. He pieced together his broken empire, asserted his authority in Fez and Marrakech, and fought the rebellious tribes of the west. In 1877 he asked the French government to send him a permanent military mission to assist in organizing his army. He planned an expedition to the Souss, but the want of food and water in the wilderness traversed by the army caused the most cruel sufferings. Moulay-el-Hassan had provisions sent by sea, but the weather was too stormy to allow of a landing on the exposed Atlantic coast, and the Sultan, who had never seen the sea, was as surprised and indignant as Canute to find that the waves would not obey him.
His son Abd-el-Aziz was only thirteen years old when he succeeded to the throne. For six years he remained under the guardianship of Ba-Ahmed, the black Vizier of Moulay-el-Hassan, who built the fairy palace of the Bahia at Marrakech, with its mysterious pale green padlocked door leading down to the secret vaults where his treasure was hidden. When the all-powerful Ba-Ahmed died the young Sultan was nineteen. He was intelligent, charming, and fond of the society of Europeans; but he was indifferent to religious questions and still more to military affairs, and thus doubly at the mercy of native mistrust and European intrigue.
Some clumsy attempts at fiscal reform, and a too great leaning toward European habits and associates, roused the animosity of the people, and of the conservative party in the upper class. The Sultan's eldest brother, who had been set aside in his favour, was intriguing against him; the usual Cherifian Pretender was stirring up the factious tribes in the mountains; and the European powers were attempting, in the confusion of an ungoverned country, to assert their respective ascendencies.
The demoralized condition of the country justified these attempts, and made European interference inevitable. But the powers were jealously watching each other, and Germany, already coveting the certain agricultural resources and the conjectured mineral wealth of Morocco, was above all determined that a French protectorate should not be set up.
In 1908 another son of Moulay-Hassan, Abd-el-Hafid, was proclaimed Sultan by the reactionary Islamite faction, who accused Abd-el-Aziz of having sold his country to the Christians. Abd-el-Aziz was defeated in a battle near Marrakech, and retired to Tangier, where he still lives in futile state. Abd-el-Hafid, proclaimed Sultan at Fez, was recognized by the whole country, but he found himself unable to cope with the factious tribes (those outside the Blad-el-Makhzen, or governed country). These rebel tribes besieged Fez, and the Sultan had to ask France for aid. France sent troops to his relief, but as soon as the dissidents were routed, and he himself was safe, Abd-el-Hafid refused to give the French army his support, and in 1912, after the horrible massacres of Fez, he abdicated in favour of another brother, Moulay Youssef, the actual ruler of Morocco.
VIII
NOTE ON MOROCCAN ARCHITECTURE
I
M. H. Saladin, whose "Manual of Moslem Architecture" was published in 1907, ends his chapter on Morocco with the words: "It is especially urgent that we should know, and penetrate into, Morocco as soon as possible, in order to study its monuments. It is the only country but Persia where Moslem art actually survives; and the tradition handed down to the present day will doubtless clear up many things."
M. Saladin's wish has been partly realized. Much has been done since 1912, when General Lyautey was appointed Resident-General, to clear up and classify the history of Moroccan art; but since 1914, though the work has never been dropped, it has necessarily been much delayed, especially as regards its published record; and as yet only a few monographs and articles have summed up some of the interesting investigations of the last five years.
II
When I was in Marrakech word was sent to Captain de S., who was with me, that a Caïd of the Atlas, whose prisoner he had been several years before, had himself been taken by the Pasha's troops, and was in Marrakech. Captain de S. was asked to identify several rifles which his old enemy had taken from him, and on receiving them found that, in the interval, they had been elaborately ornamented with the Arab niello work of which the tradition goes back to Damascus.
This little incident is a good example of the degree to which the mediaeval tradition alluded to by M. Saladin has survived in Moroccan life. Nowhere else in the world, except among the moribund fresco-painters of the Greek monasteries, has a formula of art persisted from the seventh or eighth century to the present day; and in Morocco the formula is not the mechanical expression of a petrified theology but the setting of the life of a people who have gone on wearing the same clothes, observing the same customs, believing in the same fetiches, and using the same saddles, ploughs, looms, and dye-stuffs as in the days when the foundations of the first mosque of El Kairouiyin were laid.
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Marrakech—a street fountain]
The origin of this tradition is confused and obscure. The Arabs have never been creative artists, nor are the Berbers known to have been so. As investigations proceed in Syria and Mesopotamia it seems more and more probable that the sources of inspiration of pre-Moslem art in North Africa are to be found in Egypt, Persia, and India. Each new investigation pushes these sources farther back and farther east; but it is not of much use to retrace these ancient vestiges, since Moroccan art has, so far, nothing to show of pre-Islamite art, save what is purely Phenician or Roman.
In any case, however, it is not in Morocco that the clue to Moroccan art is to be sought; though interesting hints and mysterious reminiscences will doubtless be found in such places as Tinmel, in the gorges of the Atlas, where a ruined mosque of the earliest Almohad period has been photographed by M. Doutté, and in the curious Algerian towns of Sedrata and the Kalaa of the Beni Hammads. Both of these latter towns were rich and prosperous communities in the tenth century and both were destroyed in the eleventh, so that they survive as mediaeval Pompeiis of a quite exceptional interest, since their architecture appears to have been almost unaffected by classic or Byzantine influences.
Traces of a very old indigenous art are found in the designs on the modern white and black Berber pottery, but this work, specimens of which are to be seen in the Oriental Department of the Louvre, seems to go back, by way of Central America, Greece (sixth century B.C.) and Susa (twelfth century B.C.), to the far-off period before the streams of human invention had divided, and when the same loops and ripples and spirals formed on the flowing surface of every current.
It is a disputed question whether Spanish influence was foremost in developing the peculiarly Moroccan art of the earliest Moslem period, or whether European influences came by way of Syria and Palestine, and afterward met and were crossed with those of Moorish Spain. Probably both things happened, since the Almoravids were in Spain; and no doubt the currents met and mingled. At any rate, Byzantine, Greece, and the Palestine and Syria of the Crusaders, contributed as much as Rome and Greece to the formation of that peculiar Moslem art which, all the way from India to the Pillars of Hercules, built itself, with minor variations, out of the same elements.
Arab conquerors always destroy as much as they can of the work of their predecessors, and nothing remains, as far as is known, of Almoravid architecture in Morocco. But the great Almohad Sultans covered Spain and Northwest Africa with their monuments, and no later buildings in Africa equal them in strength and majesty.
It is no doubt because the Almohads built in stone that so much of what they made survives. The Merinids took to rubble and a soft tufa, and the Cherifian dynasties built in clay like the Spaniards in South America. And so seventeenth century Meknez has perished while the Almohad walls and towers of the tenth century still stand.
The principal old buildings of Morocco are defensive and religious—and under the latter term the beautiful collegiate houses (the medersas) of Fez and Salé may fairly be included, since the educational system of Islam is essentially and fundamentally theological. Of old secular buildings, palaces or private houses, virtually none are known to exist; but their plan and decorations may easily be reconstituted from the early chronicles, and also from the surviving palaces built in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and even those which the wealthy nobles of modern Morocco are building to this day.
The whole of civilian Moslem architecture from Persia to Morocco is based on four unchanging conditions: a hot climate, slavery, polygamy and the segregation of women. The private house in Mahometan countries is in fact a fortress, a convent and a temple: a temple of which the god (as in all ancient religions) frequently descends to visit his cloistered votaresses. For where slavery and polygamy exist every house-master is necessarily a god, and the house he inhabits a shrine built about his divinity.
The first thought of the Moroccan chieftain was always defensive. As soon as he pitched a camp or founded a city it had to be guarded against the hungry hordes who encompassed him on every side. Each little centre of culture and luxury in Moghreb was an islet in a sea of perpetual storms. The wonder is that, thus incessantly threatened from without and conspired against from within—with the desert at their doors, and their slaves on the threshold—these violent men managed to create about them an atmosphere of luxury and stability that astonished not only the obsequious native chronicler but travellers and captives from western Europe.
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Rabat—gate of the Kasbah of the Oudayas]
The truth is, as has been often pointed out, that, even until the end of the seventeenth century, the refinements of civilization were in many respects no greater in France and England than in North Africa. North Africa had long been in more direct communication with the old Empires of immemorial luxury, and was therefore farther advanced in the arts of living than the Spain and France of the Dark Ages; and this is why, in a country that to the average modern European seems as savage as Ashantee, one finds traces of a refinement of life and taste hardly to be matched by Carlovingian and early Capetian Europe.
III
The brief Almoravid dynasty left no monuments behind it.
Fez had already been founded by the Idrissites, and its first mosques (Kairouiyin and Les Andalous) existed. Of the Almoravid Fez and Marrakech the chroniclers relate great things; but the wild Hilalian invasion and the subsequent descent of the Almohads from the High Atlas swept away whatever the first dynasties had created.
The Almohads were mighty builders, and their great monuments are all of stone. The earliest known example of their architecture which has survived is the ruined mosque of Tinmel, in the High Atlas, discovered and photographed by M. Doutté. This mosque was built by the inspired mystic, Ibn-Toumert, who founded the line. Following him came the great palace-making Sultans whose walled cities of splendid mosques and towers have Romanesque qualities of mass and proportion, and, as M. Raymond Koechlin has pointed out, inevitably recall the "robust simplicity of the master builders who at the very same moment were beginning in France the construction of the first Gothic cathedrals and the noblest feudal castles."
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Fez—Medersa Bouanyana]
In the thirteenth century, with the coming of the Merinids, Moroccan architecture grew more delicate, more luxurious, and perhaps also more peculiarly itself. That interaction of Spanish and Arab art which produced the style known as Moorish reached, on the African side of the Straits, its greatest completeness in Morocco. It was under the Merinids that Moorish art grew into full beauty in Spain, and under the Merinids that Fez rebuilt the mosque Kairouiyin and that of the Andalusians, and created six of its nine Medersas, the most perfect surviving buildings of that unique moment of sober elegance and dignity.
The Cherifian dynasties brought with them a decline in taste. A crude desire for immediate effect, and the tendency toward a more barbaric luxury, resulted in the piling up of frail palaces as impermanent as tents. Yet a last flower grew from the deformed and dying trunk of the old Empire. The Saadian Sultan who invaded the Soudan and came back laden with gold and treasure from the great black city of Timbuctoo covered Marrakech with hasty monuments of which hardly a trace survives. But there, in a nettle-grown corner of a ruinous quarter, lay hidden till yesterday the Chapel of the Tombs: the last emanation of pure beauty of a mysterious, incomplete, forever retrogressive and yet forever forward-straining people. The Merinid tombs of Fez have fallen; but those of their destroyers linger on in precarious grace, like a flower on the edge of a precipice.
IV
Moroccan architecture, then, is easily divided into four groups: the fortress, the mosque, the collegiate building and the private house.
The kernel of the mosque is always the mihrab, or niche facing toward the Kasbah of Mecca, where the imam[A] stands to say the prayer. This arrangement, which enabled as many as possible of the faithful to kneel facing the mihrab, results in a ground-plan necessarily consisting of long aisles parallel with the wall of the mihrab, to which more and more aisles are added as the number of worshippers grows. Where there was not space to increase these lateral aisles they were lengthened at each end. This typical plan is modified in the Moroccan mosques by a wider transverse space, corresponding with the nave of a Christian church, and extending across the mosque from the praying niche to the principal door. To the right of the mihrab is the minbar, the carved pulpit (usually of cedar-wood incrusted with mother-of-pearl and ebony) from which the Koran is read. In some Algerian and Egyptian mosques (and at Cordova, for instance) the mihrab is enclosed in a sort of screen called the maksoura; but in Morocco this modification of the simpler plan was apparently not adopted.
[Footnote A: The "deacon" or elder of the Moslem religion, which has no order of priests.]
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Fez—the praying-chapel in the Medersa el Attarine]
The interior construction of the mosque was no doubt usually affected by the nearness of Roman or Byzantine ruins. M. Saladin points out that there seem to be few instances of the use of columns made by native builders; but it does not therefore follow that all the columns used in the early mosques were taken from Roman temples or Christian basilicas. The Arab invaders brought their architects and engineers with them; and it is very possible that some of the earlier mosques were built by prisoners or fortune-hunters from Greece or Italy or Spain.
At any rate, the column on which the arcades of the vaulting rests in the earlier mosques, as at Tunis and Kairouan, and the mosque El Kairouiyin at Fez, gives way later to the use of piers, foursquare, or with flanking engaged pilasters as at Algiers and Tlemcen. The exterior of the mosques, as a rule, is almost entirely hidden by a mushroom growth of buildings, lanes and covered bazaars, but where the outer walls have remained disengaged they show, as at Kairouan and Cordova, great masses of windowless masonry pierced at intervals with majestic gateways.
Beyond the mosque, and opening into it by many wide doors of beaten bronze or carved cedar-wood, lies the Court of the Ablutions. The openings in the façade were multiplied in order that, on great days, the faithful who were not able to enter the mosque might hear the prayers and catch a glimpse of the mihrab.
In a corner of the courts stands the minaret. It is the structure on which Moslem art has played the greatest number of variations, cutting off its angles, building it on a circular or polygonal plan, and endlessly modifying the pyramids and pendentives by which the ground-plan of one story passes into that of the next. These problems of transition, always fascinating to the architect, led in Persia, Mesopotamia and Egypt to many different compositions and ways of treatment, but in Morocco the minaret, till modern times, remained steadfastly square, and proved that no other plan is so beautiful as this simplest one of all.
Surrounding the Court of the Ablutions are the school-rooms, libraries and other dependencies, which grew as the Mahometan religion prospered and Arab culture developed.
The medersa was a farther extension of the mosque: it was the academy where the Moslem schoolman prepared his theology and the other branches of strange learning which, to the present day, make up the curriculum of the Mahometan university. The medersa is an adaptation of the private house to religious and educational ends; or, if one prefers another analogy, it is a fondak built above a miniature mosque. The ground-plan is always the same: in the centre an arcaded court with a fountain, on one side the long narrow praying-chapel with the mihrab, on the other a classroom with the same ground-plan, and on the next story a series of cell-like rooms for the students, opening on carved cedar-wood balconies. This cloistered plan, where all the effect is reserved for the interior façades about the court, lends itself to a delicacy of detail that would be inappropriate on a street-front; and the medersas of Fez are endlessly varied in their fanciful but never exuberant decoration.
M. Tranchant de Lunel has pointed out (in "France-Maroc") with what a sure sense of suitability the Merinid architects adapted this decoration to the uses of the buildings. On the lower floor, under the cloister, is a revêtement of marble (often alabaster) or of the almost indestructible ceramic mosaic.[A] On the floor above, massive cedar-wood corbels ending in monsters of almost Gothic inspiration support the fretted balconies; and above rise stucco interfacings, placed too high up to be injured by man, and guarded from the weather by projecting eaves.
[Footnote A: These Moroccan mosaics are called zellijes.]
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Salé—interior court of the Medersa]
The private house, whether merchant's dwelling or chieftain's palace, is laid out on the same lines, with the addition of the reserved quarters for women; and what remains in Spain and Sicily of Moorish secular architecture shows that, in the Merinid period, the play of ornament must have been—as was natural—even greater than in the medersas.
The Arab chroniclers paint pictures of Merinid palaces, such as the House of the Favourite at Cordova, which the soberer modern imagination refused to accept until the medersas of Fez were revealed, and the old decorative tradition was shown in the eighteenth century Moroccan palaces. The descriptions given of the palaces of Fez and of Marrakech in the preceding articles, which make it unnecessary, in so slight a note as this, to go again into the detail of their planning and decoration, will serve to show how gracefully the art of the mosque and the medersa was lightened and domesticated to suit these cool chambers and flower-filled courts.
With regard to the immense fortifications that are the most picturesque and noticeable architectural features of Morocco, the first thing to strike the traveller is the difficulty of discerning any difference in the probable date of their construction until certain structural peculiarities are examined, or the ornamental details of the great gateways are noted. Thus the Almohad portions of the walls of Fez and Rabat are built of stone, while later parts are of rubble; and the touch of European influence in certain gateways of Meknez and Fez at once situate them in the seventeenth century. But the mediaeval outline of these great piles of masonry, and certain technicalities in their plan, such as the disposition of the towers, alternating in the inner and outer walls, continued unchanged throughout the different dynasties, and this immutability of the Moroccan military architecture enables the imagination to picture, not only what was the aspect of the fortified cities which the Greeks built in Palestine and Syria, and the Crusaders brought back to Europe, but even that of the far-off Assyrio-Chaldaean strongholds to which the whole fortified architecture of the Middle Ages in Europe seems to lead back.
[Illustration: From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au
Maroc
Marrakech—the gate of the Portuguese]
IX
BOOKS CONSULTED
Afrique Française (L'). Bulletin Mensuel du Comité de l'Afrique Française. Paris, 21, rue Cassette.
Bernard, Augustin. Le Maroc. Paris, F. Alcan, 1916.
Budgett-Meakin. The Land of the Moors. London, 1902.
Châtelain, L. Recherches archéologiques au Maroc: Volubilis.
(Published by the Military Command in Morocco).
Les Fouilles de Volubilis (Extrait du Bulletin Archéologique,
1916)
Chevrillon, A. Crépuscule d'Islam.
Cochelet, Charles. Le Naufrage du Brick Sophie.
Conférences Marocaines. Paris, Plon-Nourrit.
Doutté, E. En Tribu. Paris, 1914.
Foucauld, Vicomte de. La Reconnaissance au Maroc. Paris, 1888.
France-Maroc. Revue Mensuelle, Paris, 4, rue Chauveau-Lagarde.
Gaillard. Une Ville d'Islam, Fez. Paris, 1909.
Gayet, Al. L'Art Arabe. Paris, 1906.
Houdas, O. Le Maroc de 1631 à 1812. Extrait d'une histoire du Maroc intitulée "L'Interprète qui s'exprime clairement sur les dynasties de l'Orient et de l'Occident," par Ezziani. Paris, E. Leroux, 1886.
Koechlin, Raymond. Une Exposition d'Art Marocain. (Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Juillet-Septembre, 1917).
Leo Africanus, Description of Africa.
Loti, Pierre. Au Maroc.
Migeon, Gaston. Manuel d'Art Musulman, II, Les Arts
Plastiques et Industriels. Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1907.
Saladin, H. Manuel d'Art Musulman, I, L'Architecture.
Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1907.
Segonzac, Marquis de. Voyages au Maroc. Paris, 1903.
Au Coeur de l'Atlas. Paris, 1910.
Tarde, A. de. Les Villes du Maroc: Fez, Marrakech, Rabat. (Journal de l'Université des Annales, 15 Oct., 1 Nov., 1918).
Windus. A Journey to Mequinez. London, 1721.
INDEX
Abdallah-ben-Aïssa Abd-el-Aziz Abd-el-Hafid Abd-el-Kader Abd-el-Moumen Abou-el Abbas ("The Golden") Abou Hassan Abou-Youssef Agdal, olive-yards of the Ahmed-Baba Ahmed-el-Hiba Aïd-el-Kebir, the Aïssaouas, the, of Kairouan dance of Algeria, French conquest of Almohads, the, invasion of Morocco by architecture of Almoravids, the, invasion of Morocco by destruction of architecture of Andalusian Moors, the, mosque of Arabs, conquest of Morocco by Architecture, Moroccan, four basic conditions of four groups of of the Almohad dynasty of the Cherifian dynasties of the Merinid dynasty the Saadian mausoleum the collegiate building the fortress the mosque the private house Art, Moroccan, sources of influence on disappearance of treasures of and Moorish art
Ba-Ahmed, builder of the Bahia Bab F'touh cemetery, at Fez Bahia, the, palace of, at Marrakech apartment of Grand Vizier's Favourite in Bazaars, of Fez of Marrakech of Salé Beni-Merins See Merinids Berbers, the attack of, on Fez origins of dialects of nomadic character of heresy and schisms of Bernard, M. Augustin Black Guard, the Sultan's uniform of Moulay-Ismaël's method of raising Blue Men of the Sahara, the Bou-Jeloud, palace of Bugeaud, Marshal
Carthage, African colonies of
Casablanca, exhibitions at
port of
Catholics, in Morocco
Cemetery, El Alou
Bab F'touh
Châtelain, M. Louis
Chella, ruins of
Cherifian dynasties, the
architecture of
Children, Moroccan,
in the harem
negro
training of, for Black Guard
Chleuh boys, dance of
Christians, captive, and the building of Meknez
religious liberty to, in Africa
Clocks, in Sultan's harem at Rabat
Cochelet, Charles, his "Naufrage du Brick Sophie"
Colleges, at Fez
at Salé
Moslem
architecture of Moroccan
Colors, of North African towns
Commerce, Moroccan
Conti, Princesse de
Convention of Fez, the
Courts of Justice, Moroccan
Crowds, Moroccan street
Culture, in North Africa
Dance, of Chleuh boys
of the Hamadchas
Dawn, in Africa
Djebilets, the
Doutté, M.
Dust-storm, at Marrakech
Education, in Morocco Elakhdar, mosque of El Alou, cemetery of El Andalous, mosque of Elbah (Old Fez) harems of Eldjid (New Fez) palaces of founding of El Kairouiyin, mosque of the praying-hall of the court of ablutions of legend of the tortoise of El-Ksar El-Mansour, Yacoub Elmansour, palace of Empress Mother, the English emissaries, visit of, to Meknez Exhibitions, planned by General Lyautey Ezziani, chronicler of Moulay-Ismaël
Fatimites, the
Fez, the approach to
unchanged character of
ruins of Merinid tombs of
the upper or new
old summer-palace at
night in
antiquity of
palaces of
the inns at
streets of
a city of wealth
the merchant of
bazaars of
a melancholy city
twilight in
the shrines of
mosque of Moulay Idriss at
mosque of El Kairouiyinat
the University of
Medersas of
mosque of El Andalous at
Bab F'touh cemetery of
the potters of
art and culture of
the Mellah of
harems of Old
the Convention of
uprising in
attack of Berbers on
exhibitions at
Moslem college at
founding of
Almoravid conquest of
centre of Moroccan learning
Catholic diocese at
massacres at
Fez Elbali
Fez Eldjid
Fondak Nedjanne, the
Fortifications, Moroccan, architecture of
Foucauld, Vicomte de
Franco-German treaty of 1911
French Protectorate in Morocco, work of
French, conquests in Morocco
at Fez
Furniture, disappearance of Merinid
Ghilis, the
Gouraud, General
Hamadch, tomb of
Hamadchas, the, ritual dance of
Harem
in old Fez
an Imperial
in Marrakech
in old Rabat
Hassan, Sultan
Hassan, tower of, at Rabat
Hassanians, the, rule of
Holy War, the, against France
against Spain and Portugal
Hospitals, in Morocco
Houses, Moroccan,
architecture of
color of
plan of
rich private
Ibn-Toumert
Idriss I
Idriss II
Idrissite empire, the
Inns, Moroccan
Jews, of Sefrou
treatment of North African
Kairouan, the Aïssaouas of
Great Mosque of
Kairouiyin, mosque of See El
Kairouiyin
Kalaa, ruins of
Kenitra, port of
Koechlin, M. Raymond
Koutoubya, tower of the
Lamothe, General
Land, area of cultivated, in Morocco
Louis XIV, and Moulay-Ismaël
Lunel, M. Tranchant de
Lyautey, General
at Sultan's court
appointed Resident-General in Morocco
military occupation of Morocco by
policy of
economic development of Morocco achieved by
summary of work of
Maclean, Sir Harry
Mamora, forest of
Mangin, General
Mansourah, mosque of
Market, of Marrakech
in Moulay Idriss
of Salé
of Sefrou
Marrakech, the road to
founders of
tower of the Koutoubya at
palace of the Bahia at
the lamp-lighters of
mixed population of
bazaars of
the "morocco" workers of
olive-yards of
the Menara of
a holiday of merchants of
the Square of the Dead in
French administration office at
fruit-market of
dance of Chleuh boys in
Saadian tombs of
a harem in
taken by the French
Catholic diocese at
Chapel of the Tombs at
Medersa, the, of the Oudayas
Attarine
at Fez
at Salé
architecture of
Mehedyia, Phenician colony of
Meknez, building of
the Kasbah of
palaces of
stables of
entrance into
ruins of
sunken gardens of
visit of English emissaries to
Mellah, of Fez
of Sefrou
Menara, the, in the Agdal
Mequinez See Meknez
Merinids, the, tombs of, at Fez
conquest of Morocco by
architecture of
Mirador, the Imperial
Moorish art
Mosque, of Elakhador
of El Andalous
of El Kairouiyin
of Kairouan
of Mansourah
of Rabat
of Tinmel
of Tunisia
architecture of Moroccan
Moulay Hafid
Moulay-el-Hassan
Moulay Idriss I, rule of
tomb of
Moulay Idriss II, tomb of
rule of
Moulay Idriss, Sacred City of
Street of the Weavers in
feast of the Hamadchas in
market-place of
whiteness of
founding of
Moulay-Ismaël, and Louis XIV
exploits of
mausoleum of Moulay Idriss enlarged by
Meknez built by
the Black Guard of
description of
palaces of
and English emissaries
death of
rule of
successors of
Moulay Youssef
Nedjarine, fountain and inn of
Night, in Fez
Oases, Moroccan
Marrakech
Sefrou
Settat
Oudayas, the, Kasbah of
Medersa of
Palaces, Moroccan, the Bahia
Bou-Jeloud
at Fez
at Meknez
of Moulay-Ismaël
Phenicians, the, African explorations of
Pilgrimage to Salé, a
Population, Moroccan, varied elements of
Ports, Moroccan
Portugal, the Holy War against
Pottery, Berber
Potters' Field, the
Rabat
Tower of Hassan at
ruins of mosque at
called "Camp of Victory"
Sacrifice of the Sheep at
Sultan's harem of
visit to a harem in old
exhibitions at
port of
Moslem college at
Central Laboratory at
Railways, Moroccan, built by French Protectorate
Rarb, the
Roads, Moroccan, built by French Protectorate
Romans, the, African explorations of
Saadian Sultans, the, history of tombs of rule of Sacrifice of the Sheep, the Saint-Amand, M. de Saladin, M. H., his "Manual of Moslem Architecture" Salé, first view of type of untouched Moroccan city bazaar of Medersas of market of colors of Schools, in Morocco Sedrata, ruins of Sefrou market-place of men and women of Jewish colony of Senegal Settat, oasis of Sheep, sacrifice of the Sidi-Mohammed Slaves, Moroccan trade in white Sloughi, bronze, at Volubilis Soudan Spain, the Holy War against Spanish zone, the, German intrigue in Stables, of Meknez Stewart, Commodore Street of the Weavers (Moulay Idriss) Streets, Moroccan
Tangier
colors of
taken by the French
Tetuan, bronze chandelier of
Timbuctoo, the Sultanate of
Tingitanian Mauretania
Tinmel, ruins of mosque at
Tlemcen, the conflict for
Touaregs, the
Tower, of Hassan
of the Koutoubya
Tunisia, Almohad sanctuary of
Vandals, the, African invasion by Veiled Men, the Versailles and Meknez Villages, "sedentary" Volubilis, ruins of bronze sloughi of founded by Romans
Wedding, Jewish, procession bringing gifts for
Windus, John
Women, Moroccan,
dress of
of Sefrou
of the harems
in Sultan's harem
in harems of Old Fez
in harem of Marrakech
in harem of Rabat
negro
Yacoub-el-Mansour
Youssef-ben-Tachfin