Industrial and commercial South America

One of the two inland Republics of South America, Bolivia has an enormous area, a section of which is still unexplored in detail. Its chief towns situated on the lofty Andean plateau or a little over its eastern edge, it seems wonderful indeed that here in the 16th century, prior to the existence of New York or Boston, were populous, wealthy cities, hundreds of miles from the coast and from the seat of the Viceroy at Lima. In the present day, such a horseback ride across country as was then and till within a half century common, would by most persons be considered quite a feat, while a similar descent to the Atlantic port of Buenos Aires, then not unusual, is an expedition that would commend itself to few; though this crossing were to the Paraguay River only, where a steamboat would be available for the remainder of the journey.

Area, Population, Boundary

Area. Bolivia, with an area variously given as 515,000 to 708,000 square miles, is generally counted third in size of the Republics. Pending the settlement of the boundary dispute with Paraguay and more accurate surveys, probably at least 600,000 may be conceded, a larger territory than the entire Atlantic slope of the United States. Once possessing a small coast line which included the port of Antofagasta, Bolivia was deprived of this in 1883 at the close of the war with Chile.

Population. The number of inhabitants, mainly an estimate, has been recently given as nearly 3,000,000. With about four persons to a square mile, it is the most sparsely peopled of American Republics.

Boundary. At the north and east the country borders on Brazil. Paraguay is at the southeast, Argentina directly south, and Chile and Peru west.

History

Known by the name of Alto Peru, the country was ruled for nearly three centuries by the Viceroy at Lima, and by a Royal Audience of four men at Chuquisaca, now Sucre, the nominal capital of the Republic. La Paz is noted as the seat of the earliest effort (July, 1809) in South America for democratic government. Though abortive, it was the inspiration of later struggles. The battle of Ayacucho in 1824, which ended Spanish dominion over the continent, was followed by the entrance into La Paz of General Sucre with his victorious army, February 7, 1825. The Act of Independence is dated August 6, 1825. The Republic was named for Bolívar, who was elected President, while Chuquisaca was made the capital with the name of Sucre. General Bolívar, inaugurated in November, resigned in January, 1826, and was succeeded by General Sucre, the first President who really served. More or less troublous times followed until a war with Chile broke out in 1879 over the export nitrate tax. At the conclusion of peace Bolivia lost the small coast section of nitrate land, Antofagasta, which she previously possessed. Since that time several revolutions have occurred, one in 1920, but none affecting her credit, her foreign contracts, or the lives of the people generally.

Government

Bolivia is in form a centralized republic and has the usual three branches. The President, who with two Vice Presidents is elected for four years, and is ineligible for a consecutive term, exercises almost absolute authority, although Congress meets annually on the sixth of August. The President’s Cabinet is composed of six Ministers: of Foreign Relations and Worship, Interior and Justice, Treasury, Promotion (Internal Improvements), Public Instruction and Agriculture, and War and Colonization.

The Senate has 16 members, the Chamber of Deputies 72. The administrators of the Departments and of the 63 Provinces, the Prefects and the Sub-prefects respectively, are appointed by the President. Municipal Councils regulate the local affairs of the cities. Suffrage is enjoyed by male citizens over 21 (not domestics) who can read and write, who have a fixed income of 200 bolivians, and whose names are registered. The Supreme Court alone of the three branches of government is located at the nominal capital Sucre. The Judiciary has a Supreme Court with seven Judges, a Superior Court in each Department, and Provincial and Parochial Courts.

The Republic comprises eight Departments and three Territories as follows:

Population

The population of Bolivia, about 2,800,000, as in Peru is in three classes: the whites, numbering possibly 500,000, Indians and mestizos most of the rest, the Indians largely in the majority, though there are more than half a million mestizos. A few thousand are negroes. Since the coming of the Spaniards centuries ago, there has been no real immigration, the mass of the people thus continuing Indian. The whites, many of whom have some admixture of Indian blood, are of course the ruling class. An aristocratic society exists, the members of which follow French fashions and customs and in considerable number have visited Europe. A few persons have inherited or acquired by mining or otherwise very large fortunes. Some persons of obviously mixed race or mainly of Indian blood become educated, and acquiring wealth take part in politics, hold office, and obtain social position; more such than in Peru. There is a really cultured society in all towns of moderate size.

The plateau Indians are chiefly Aymarás or Quichuas, the former living around Lake Titicaca and throughout the northern part of the plateau; while the Quichuas, strange to say, are at the south, farther from their kindred in Peru. The Aymarás are less prepossessing than the Quichuas, more churlish, rather darker, similar in mode of life, though a trifle more backward. They till the soil to some extent, act as herdsmen, work in mines, and perform heavy labor of any kind, carrying loads of 60-80 pounds, 20, 30, even 50 miles a day. The women are said to be stronger than the men; both do spinning and weaving. The men are inveterate chewers of coca, and men and women both are much given to drunkenness. Of melancholy aspect, they seem devoid of ambition. Generally submissive, if aroused they are revengeful and murderous. Having received little attention from the Government they are probably in poorer case than when ruled by the Incas; they are believed to be diminishing in numbers. Plans have been formed for improving their condition.

The mestizos, also called cholos, feminine cholas, are the industrial class of the nation, artisans, shopkeepers to some extent, etc. The men dress in second class European style; the cholas, one might say, half and half. As a rule the cholos treat the Indians more harshly than do the real whites, while to the latter they are rather servile. Some cholos have distinguished themselves as writers and statesmen. Two thirds of the population are said to live at or above 12,000 feet. Several mining camps are at 15,000 to 16,000 feet.

Education

Education is public, official, free, or private. Primary education is called free and compulsory. The provision, formerly inadequate, has recently been improved in accordance with a well planned programme. There are about 900 primary schools with 53,000 pupils, including private and kindergarten. Fourteen colegios nacionales provide for secondary education besides private schools under government supervision; in La Paz and Cochabamba, two under Methodist auspices have accomplished excellent work. Teachers are trained in four normal schools, while professional or higher education is afforded by Universities in La Paz, Sucre, and Cochabamba, Law Schools at Oruro, Potosí, Santa Cruz, and Tarija, a School of Theology at Santa Cruz. There are further a Mining School, Institutes of Agronomy, Commerce, Modern Languages, and Music; and four Schools of Arts and Trades, the one at Cochabamba giving excellent results from instruction in weaving wool, and in the use of native dyes. With a view to extending and modernizing the education of women coeducation is practised in most institutions and there are two liceos for girls. Students of especial ability are sometimes sent abroad for study, and foreign instructors are engaged.

Press, Religion, Etc.

Press. The press, while important, is said to have less influence than in the neighboring Republics, and it contains less news of the world.

Religion. The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, but freedom is now granted to other forms of worship. Civil marriage alone is legal, but is frequently neglected by the Indians.

Telegraphic Communication. The Capital is in telegraphic communication with the rest of the world and with the capitals of all the Departments. The country has over 200 offices, and 4350 miles of wire. A powerful wireless station at Viacha, on the plateau 15 miles from La Paz, communicates with the Pacific Coast and with passing ships. Other stations are at Villa Bella, Cobija, Trinidad, Santa Cruz, Ballivián, D’Orbigny, Esteros, Riberalta, Puerto Suarez, and Yacuiba. Telephone service exists in La Paz and Oruro.

Money. The unit of Bolivian money is the boliviano, equal to about 40 cents (.389) of our money. English and Peruvian gold pounds are legal tender, equal to 12.50 bolivianos. The latter are divided into 100 centavos. Silver coins are of 20 and 50 centavos. Bank bills of one and five bolivianos and of higher denominations are in general use.

Weights and Measures are of the metric system, but in the interior the old Castilian system is chiefly employed.

Physical Characteristics

The topography of Bolivia in general is similar to that of Peru save for the absence of a coast section. The Sierra or plateau region and the Trans-Andine continue those at the north, though the latter differs from the Peruvian in that its rivers reach the Atlantic Ocean, some by way of the Amazon, others by the Paraná and La Plata, while the montaña of Peru is wholly in the Amazon Basin.

The Plateau Region of Bolivia, 90 miles from the Pacific, extends from northwest to southeast about 460 miles, with an average width of 100 miles and an altitude of 12,500 feet. It is bordered on the west by the Cordillera Occidental, containing snowclad peaks, several of which are volcanoes, many dormant or extinct, and on the east by the Cordillera Oriental, the northern part of which is the Real or Royal, a name eminently deserved. The two ranges come together at the Knot of Cuzco or Vilcanota. Northeast of Lake Titicaca is another confused mass or knot, the Nudo of Apolobamba, where are said to be some of the highest peaks of the Andes. The central plateau, once an inland sea, and now including Lake Titicaca, slopes slightly from the north, where it has a height above 13,000 feet. It is broken in places by ridges and peaks, one over 17,000 feet high, and is cut by a few cañons. In the West Cordillera a number of peaks reach an elevation of 19,000, 20,000, or 21,000 feet; on the east the Cordillera Real contains several above 21,000. Farther south in the lower ranges are some peaks of volcanic character. A transverse ridge, the Serranía de Lipez, terminates the Bolivian Plateau.

East of the southern part of the Cordillera Oriental is a mountainous section of which the Sierra de Cochabamba on the northeast and the Sierra de Misiones on the east form the limit. Considerably farther east in the region of the lowlands is the Sierra de Chiquitos between the Mamoré and Guaporé Rivers, mere hills in comparison, with one almost attaining 4000 feet. The highland or plateau section, the only part visited by ordinary tourists or commercial men, occupies hardly two fifths of the territory, the less known lowlands three fifths.

The Lowlands, extending farther north than the Bolivian plateau, comprise low alluvial plains, swamps, and lands often flooded, including great forests and llanos. The great forests are at the north in the Amazon Basin, the open plains in that of the Plata.

Rivers. The only rivers of consequence are those which flow towards the Atlantic, with the exception of the Desaguadero, about 200 miles long, the outlet of Lake Titicaca. This river flows into Lake Pampa Aullagas or Poopo, which has no outlet unless it be by an underground stream to the Pacific, of which there are some indications. The principal rivers of the Plata system, the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo, flow southeast into the Paraguay River. More numerous and important are the streams flowing northeast belonging to the Amazon Basin, the chief of these, the Beni, and the Mamoré, which form the Madera River. They have many tributaries, the Beni having the Madre de Dios, the Madidi, the Cochabamba, and others; the Mamoré receiving the great boundary river, the Guaporé or Itenez, and many more.

Climate

Bolivia, still within the tropics, has the same variety of climate as the countries previously described, the difference in altitude causing the variation. The portion of the table-land where the altitude is 12,000 to 13,000 feet, called the puna by the natives, has two seasons which resemble autumn and winter, the summer is so short and cool. The summer, the season of snows, is from October or November to May; the winter usually has slight precipitation. Little will grow here except potatoes, barley, and quinua. The higher land up to the snow line, perhaps 17,000 feet, called the puna brava, is still colder, supporting grass only, where herders alone are found with native flocks and rare mining settlements. Higher still is eternal snow with almost Arctic temperature, -20° I found it at night on a glacier on Mt. Sorata. A professor once told me that at 16,000 feet he was unable to keep warm at night however much clothing and blankets he used, but the Indians, moderately clad and with bare feet, endure the cold with apparent indifference.

The valleys as high as 12,000 feet, as in the case of La Paz, are comparatively comfortable, being shielded from the bleak winds of the plateau. From 9500 feet to 11,000 the climate is sufficiently temperate for the raising of vegetables and cereals. In what is called the Valley Zone, 5,000 to 9,000 feet, there is slight variation throughout the year, perpetual summer and subtropical vegetation. Below are the yungas, deep valleys with semitropical climate, and further the tropical lowlands. Except for the last section the country as a whole may be called healthful, diseases arising from bad habits, poverty, ignorance, and unsanitary conditions, rather than as a necessary result of the climate. In the lowlands, however, tropical fevers and malaria are likely to exist, while many persons are more or less affected by soroche on ascending to the plateau from the sea. In La Paz the weather in winter is cool, with a temperature occasionally below freezing and ranging from 40° to 50° in the house. Snow though not uncommon soon vanishes in the sun, and flowers like geraniums blossom all the year in the open. In summer, with much more precipitation, it usually rains in the valley, with snow often on the puna and always on the mountains above.