CHAPTER XLVI
BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Brazil presents in physical characteristics more variety than is generally supposed. As the great Amazon Basin is in striking contrast to the immense Andean Range, the entire country is thought of as hot. Since it extends from 5° 10′ N. Lat. to 33° 45′ S. Lat. with the widest part near the equator, the greater portion of the territory is evidently in the torrid zone, 11° only in the temperate, with more than twice that in the tropics. However, in this comparatively low country, there is happily a variation in altitude sufficient to affect the climate and to give rise to variety in productions; to which diversity the 11° in the temperate zone also contribute. The territory may be considered as in four general sections: the Amazon Basin, the Plata (the two almost connected over low elevations), the Coastal Belt, and a mass of mountains and highlands along the coastal states, extending also at a lower level across to Bolivia. In addition there are the Guiana Highlands at the north.
The Coastal Belt
The coastal section is largely a low-lying sandy tract, varied by swamp lands overgrown with palms or other verdure, and slopes covered with dense tropical vegetation. Without deep indentations in the form of gulfs and bays there is a considerable number of good harbors. In the far south two large lakes have been created which are connected with the ocean. The coastal strip varies in width from one to 100 miles.
The Guiana Highlands
Of the mountainous regions, the range forming the boundary line with Venezuela and Guiana on the north with its offshoots and the country between has attracted little interest and been but slightly explored. From Mt. Roraima, 8500 feet, at the corner of Venezuela and British Guiana, the range lowers toward the East, the highest point on the French frontier being about 2600 feet. South of this are broken ranges and deep river courses on the Brazilian plateau, which with an altitude of 2000 feet slopes south and east. Excepting the part near the coast, this section called Brazilian Guiana is semi-arid, on account of the mountains extracting the moisture from the northeast trade winds. Inhabited by a few roving bands of Indians and in the east visited by white mining adventurers, it has been deemed one of the least attractive parts of the Republic. Recent exploration, however, has reported an extent of valuable forest lands and immense areas of open country suited to cattle ranges. A railway from British Guiana is talked of to render this district accessible to the outside world.
The Plateau and Mountain Region
An important part of Brazil is the plateau region (altitude 1000-3000 feet) south of the Amazon, especially that portion extending along the coastal states. The greater part of the central section was once covered with a thick sandstone sheet, now deeply eroded by numerous rivers which have left high flat ridges between the lower basins. The true mountain systems which rise from the plateau are parallel ranges following the coast, and the Central or Goyana system. An almost continuous range, the Serra do Mar, stretches from Rio Grande do Sul to Cape Frio, just east of Rio de Janeiro; beyond this, farther from the coast, broken sections extend well towards Cape St. Roque in Rio Grande do Norte. The highest point in the Serra do Mar or Coast Range is 7223 feet in the Organ Mountains near Rio, as the capital city is often called for short and may be so understood when here used.
A second parallel range runs from Eastern São Paulo northeast and north to the point where the São Francisco River turns east in Bahia; Itatiaiá, 9823 feet, in Rio de Janeiro State, is its culminating point in Brazil. West of the São Francisco River is the Central or Goyaz Range, also in two branches, running from the southern part of Goyaz northeast, one branch across western Minas Geraes, the other in Goyaz with highlands extending far north separating the Tocantins Basin from the São Francisco, and in the south separating it from the Paraná. The highest point is near the city of Goyaz, Mt. Pyraneus, 7750 feet. How the great table-land has been broken down by rivers is shown by the Tocantins-Araguaya Basin excavated northward for 700 miles. From 100 to 500 miles wide, it is from 10 to 1500 feet deep.
The eastern margin of the plateau is near the Atlantic where it breaks off suddenly with an average height of 2600-3200 feet. This plateau is the best part of the country, the Atlantic slope heavily wooded, the more gradual west slope with many grass covered plains. A fertile soil, rich forests, and regular rainfall make this a favored region. Farther north than Minas Geraes, the section has less rain, is thinly wooded in places, with large areas suited to grazing but subject to drought. The plateau extends across Brazil north of Paraguay abruptly breaking down from a height of 2600-3000 feet towards the Paraná and Paraguay Basins. It has a gradual slope towards the Amazon, the parts excavated by the rivers having lowland characteristics.
The Amazon Basin
The section of the Amazon Basin is indeed immense. The whole drainage area with that of the Tocantins, generally included though not strictly a component part, spreads over 2,700,000 square miles, much of it as we have already seen outside of Brazil, and occupying two-fifths of South America. This area is greater than the basins of the Mississippi, Missouri, Danube, and Nile, all combined. The course of one tributary to the sea is 3200 miles. Of the 55 largest rivers in the world, it is said that 33 are mainly if not wholly in Brazil. Twenty-seven thousand miles of navigable rivers are found in the country, the greater part connected with the Amazon, which is itself navigable for ocean steamers to Iquitos, Peru, a distance of 2300 miles, and 486 miles farther for vessels of 14 feet draft. The true mouth of the Amazon is west and north of the Marajos Island which is greater in area than Holland or Belgium, while the Pará River at the south and east is the mouth of the Tocantins. This, however, is the usual entrance for Amazon steamers even when they do not wish to call at Pará, for this river is connected by natural channels among islands with the greater stream, and the northern entrance has too strong a current to be desirable for navigation. As a matter of convenience the Tocantins is generally included with the Amazon in descriptions. The depth of the estuary is 90-900 feet, averaging 150.
The Tocantins River is a great artery of Brazil flowing from south to north a distance of 1600 miles, with a west affluent, the Araguaya, almost its equal in size and 1000 miles long above the union. Both rivers receive many tributaries. The flat broad valleys are overlooked by steep bluffs. The cataracts and rapids which occur on nearly all of the rivers as they come down from the plateau greatly interfere with navigation, but in their lower courses many are navigable for hundreds of miles, the Tocantins for 130.
The Xingú, the next river, with a length of 1260 miles is the first true tributary of the Amazon on the south. This also flows nearly north with many rapids and at last a fall, Itamaracá, at the head of navigation, 105 miles from its mouth. Near this the river expands into a great lake which communicates with the Amazon by many natural channels.
The Tapajós, 1158 miles long, entering the Amazon about 500 miles above Pará, rises near Diamantino on the plateau, and flows through a long, hot, unhealthful valley. One hundred and eighty-eight miles are navigable, the lower 100 of these being 4-9 miles wide and throughout much of its course very deep. Along the lower river valley are bluffs 300-400 feet high.
The Madeira, entering 870 miles above Pará, almost rivals the Amazon in volume. In the rainy season, during which it rises 50 feet, the largest ocean steamers may ascend 665 miles to the falls of Santo Antonio and the Madeira-Mamoré Railway; from June to December it is navigable for vessels of 5-6 foot draft only. Tributary to the Madeira on the east is the river formerly called the Duvida, first completely traversed by Colonel Roosevelt and his party and now named in his honor Rio Roosevelt. The Madeira which has 90 tributaries and a basin of over 600,000 square miles is formed a little higher up by the junction of the Beni and Mamoré, both of which streams rise close to the head waters of the Paraguay. From Santo Antonio south, the Madeira-Mamoré is obstructed for 263 miles by a series of rapids and cataracts, the Madeira Falls, where the Beni comes in, presenting a vast display of whirlpool and boiling torrents. Above Santo Antonio the drainage is received of the southwest slope of the State of Matto Grosso, the north slope of the Chiquitos Sierras, and the northeast slope of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia to Cuzco in Peru. The most important of the affluents are the Guaporé, Baurés, Itonamas, Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios. The almost level Mojos and Beni plains are said to rival if not to exceed in fertility the Nile Valley; they are the most healthful and most inviting grazing and agricultural regions in the Amazon Basin, which has an area about equal to that of France and Spain. However, 35,000 square miles are flooded 2-3 feet, three or four months every year.
The Purús, over 2000 miles in length, is a very sluggish stream parallel to the Madeira, in the great depression between the Brazilian plateau and the Andes. A peculiar feature is five parallel canals coming into it from the Amazon northwest at almost regular intervals, making five low islands; and nearer to the great river are three more. The Purús is navigable for light steamers 1648 miles five months in the year; for 800 miles its depth is not less than 45 feet. The lands are subject to inundation, the river at times rising 50 feet.
The Juruá is a similar river, navigable for 1133 miles.
The Javary, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is navigable for craft 260 miles. The region is occupied by savages.
The Trombetes. On the north side of the Amazon there are fewer important rivers, the Trombetes, the first from the east, which is navigable 135 miles, comes from the Guiana Highlands.
The Negro, 900 miles from Pará, 1500 miles long, is navigable for 450 miles forming midway a succession of lagoons, and overflowing its banks, often for a width of 20 miles. The rivers farther west have been sufficiently described.
The average depth of the Amazon is 50 feet, the current is three miles an hour. Beginning to rise in November the river is fullest in June, then falling to November. The Madeira, which rises and falls two months earlier, is in places 4-6 miles wide. The width of the Amazon is 20-60 miles, while in periods of inundation the forest is partly submerged for a width of 400 miles.
The Plata Basin
A much smaller portion of Brazil lies in the basin of La Plata; this, at least for the moment, is the best and richest part of the entire country, containing the greatest population outside of the coastal fringe.
The Uruguay. At the south the several rivers forming the Uruguay, which rise in the Serra do Mar, drain Rio Grande do Sul and part of Santa Catharina, while from there up to the north end of São Paulo and into Goyaz only a narrow coast region is outside the Paraná Basin.
The Paraná. The most remote source of the Paraná, that of the branch Paranahyba, is in the Serra Pyreneos in Goyaz, while the Rio Grande branch rises in the Serra da Mantiqueira near the peak Itatiaiá, so to say, in sight of Rio. Many affluents are received from the States of São Paulo and Paraná, these generally flowing northwest or west; the Paraná itself flows southwest forming the western boundary of those States. A branch, the Tiété, in São Paulo, 700 miles long, is broken by 54 rapids and two falls. The Paranapanema in Paraná, 600 miles long, is navigable for 30 miles. The Iguassú, rising in the Serra do Mar in Santa Catharina and flowing west is hardly navigable for canoes.
Twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Tiété the course of the Paraná is interrupted by the Falls of Urubupungá. From here to the Guaira or Sete Quedas Falls, 400 miles, there is unobstructed navigation. At this point the river forms a lake 4¹⁄₂ miles long and 2¹⁄₂ wide before cutting through the Serra de Maracajú. Then after rushing through a deep and narrow gorge for two miles, it plunges down a long cañon hardly 200 feet wide in a series of rapids or falls called the Sete Quedas, Seven Falls. It is reported as able to supply over a million horse power, probably the most of any cataract in the world. Again the river is navigable from a little below the falls, and with regular service it forms an outlet for the State of Paraná to the ocean.
The Paraguay. The River Paraguay rises near Diamantino in Matto Grosso receiving a number of tributaries from that State, one of which, the Cuyabá, called the São Lourenço lower down, has its source close to that of the Tapajós branch of the Amazon.
Coast Rivers and Lakes
Other rivers flow directly into the Atlantic, several of some importance. North of the Amazon a few small rivers are called auriferous, the Araguary of considerable length. South of the Amazon Delta, some rivers flow north and northeast among the mountain ridges, others directly to the ocean. Of the former the most important are the Parnahyba, 900 miles long, navigable in sections, and farther south the São Francisco, the largest river of the coastal region, navigable 192 miles from the coast to the fine Paulo Affonso Falls, and above these for a much greater distance. The Jequitinhonha, 500 miles long, has 84 miles navigable. The most important river south of the São Francisco is the Parahyba do Sul, 658 miles long, rising in the State of São Paulo and flowing across Rio. It is navigable from its mouth a distance of 57 miles and 90 in its upper course.
The Ribeira de Iguapé. The only coast river of economic importance south of Cape Frio is the Ribeira de Iguapé which rises on the table-land of Paraná and after receiving several affluents breaks through the mountains near the boundary of São Paulo. Besides a navigable channel of 118 miles it communicates with an inland waterway called the Iguapé or Mar Pequeno, extending many miles along the coast. In Rio Grande do Sul, where the coastal plain extends half across the State, several rivers partly navigable flow into the important Lagôa dos Patos, with which is connected by a navigable channel, 61 miles long, the Lagôa Mirím.
Lakes. The Lakes of Brazil are few in comparison with the rivers. Those in the Amazon Basin are reservoirs from the overflow of the rivers and rise and fall with these. The coastal section has lagoons and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches; they are usually shallow and some, as in Bahia, are associated with swamps; but on the Alagôas coast the lakes are long, narrow, and deep. The largest coastal lakes are the two in Rio Grande do Sul already mentioned, separated by broad sand beaches from the ocean, with which they communicate by a channel 42 miles long at the south end of the Lagôa dos Patos. This lake is 140 miles long and 30 wide; the Mirím is 78 miles long and at the most 25 wide. Both are navigable, though shallow and with many sand bars.
Climate
This great country of Brazil presents considerable diversity of climate, as already observed. The forest covered Amazon Basin is hot, with slight variation throughout the year, and with heavy rainfalls; but while the average temperature is over 80°, ranging from 65° to 95°, some locations are decidedly preferable to others. The regular rainy season is from November to March, a second of less degree from August to October; also the rainy season is said to last nine months. On the upper Amazon there is a short dry season in January and February. There is a flood time November, December, and higher water from March to June. The average rainfall is about 78 inches, the rise of the river 45 feet. There are east winds, warm and moisture laden, the deflected trades, and colder winds from the west and southwest.
The coast region as far south as Santos is generally warm and humid (except for a stretch at the northeast), with a wet and dry season, though it rains also in the latter, except on the arid northeast coast. A variation occurs in Pernambuco where it rains from March to August, the dry and cooler season in Rio. Here on the edge of the tropics the annual temperature is 5° lower than on the Amazon. At Santos rainfall is heavy and the place is hot, but farther south it is cooler with a wider range of temperature and a more even distribution of rain. In Rio Grande do Sul the mercury ranges from 20° to 80°. Cold southwest storms from the Argentine pampa, occasionally as far as Rio, create discomfort for two or three days at a time. The highest temperature in Rio is 98.7°.
The Brazilian plateau is very different. As a rule the days are hotter and the nights cooler, the air drier, than on the coast at the same latitude. With mean temperature 68° there is occasional frost. Brazilian Guiana is hot and arid, though with more rain at the east and west than in the centre. South of the Amazon from Piauhy to southern Bahia is another semi-arid section with a rainless season from June to December, when streams are dry and fields are burned bare. With heavy rains from January to May, the country is covered with verdure; when these fail, sometimes for successive years, the droughts are destructive to agriculture and cattle. The plateaus of Minas, São Paulo, and Rio have a climate which is modified by luxuriant vegetation, south winds, and their altitude; though Minas Geraes, having forests only along the rivers and at the south, is hotter by day, but with always cool nights. The open lands of São Paulo also have higher daily temperature; the annual mean is 68°-77°. In south Minas and São Paulo frosts occasionally occur. In the State of Rio there is a delightful climate in the high valleys of the Serra do Mar, temperature 45°-90°. The table-lands farther south, Paraná, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate climate with abundant rain, occasional frost, but no snow. The northern valleys of the Paraná River are sub-tropical, the mean annual temperature of Goyaz City being 77°.
The country over a large extent may be considered healthful; the yellow fever which once afflicted Rio and some other cities has been exterminated by rigid sanitary measures, and the conditions of life on the eastern plateau and in the temperate south are agreeable. The Amazon Valley is of course malarial, though some sections are far better than others. It would seem that the lower parts which are subject to inundation can hardly be made suitable for residence whatever precautions are taken; but the higher lands may be to some extent free of malarial poison, and certain parts have a climate which some Europeans, even Englishmen enjoy.