Insanity: Its Causes and Prevention

CHAPTER VI.

The third is that of the new Hospital for the Insane at Worcester, Mass.; and of the admissions here last year, we find that more than forty-two per cent. were from the above-named classes.

The fourth is that of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, and of the admissions here, thirty per cent. were of these classes; while an examination of the occupations of those admitted to the Somerset and Bath Asylum, England, shows that nearly forty per cent. were of persons similarly circumstanced.

In these statistics I have included those persons who, in the reports, are classed as domestics, laborers, and persons of no occupation. I have not included wives of laborers, or persons whose occupation was “unknown.” I think it may fairly be assumed that, in the case of laborers, those who dig and shovel and labor on the public works, or in other places, under supervision, and in the case of domestics generally throughout the country, not one in ten has ever had any training or education in any special line of service before they undertook to earn a living in following these avocations; that, in fact, they could not do any thing else.

Possibly reports of other asylums might show statistics varying somewhat from these, but I take it that these are sufficiently accurate for my purpose, which is to show from what class of persons, so far as an education in any of the ordinary employments is concerned, a very large percentage of the admissions to our State hospitals comes. Without doubt a still larger per cent. of the admissions to some of the county asylums in England comes from this class of persons.

But so far we have shown only the per cent. the admissions of this class sustain to that of all admissions to asylums. Their true significance will appear only when we bear in mind the percentage this class of persons sustains to the whole population. The whole number of domestics, common laborers, and persons of no occupation, must be small as compared with the whole number of persons above fifteen years of age, and from whom admissions to asylums come. If, therefore, this amounts to more than one third of all admissions, it must amount to a very much higher per cent. than comes from any other class in the community to these asylums.

It may be proper to add to the above classes of persons the no inconsiderable number who, throughout the States, are engaged as mere operatives in our factories and manufacturing establishments. Many of these are engaged, and have been for years, in tending to some portion of machinery which is nearly automatic in its operations, and which requires little or no special training or education on the part of the operative. There might also be included, for my present purpose, that not inconsiderable class whose education for any business has been only partial, and who, with little previous training, have assumed the full responsibilities of such business.

The fact that more than one third of all admissions to those State hospitals which are located in the older portions of our country are from those who have never been properly educated in any of the regular occupations of life, is certainly significant, and I think will appear more so as we proceed. This, however, is only one element or factor in their condition, and it would be far from correct to conclude that this lack of education is in all, or nearly all, the only cause of their insanity. Doubtless many other causes have united in producing this result, as in other classes of society; but in many cases these other causes would have proved to be insufficient of themselves to effect such a result.

The amount of brain irritation, and consequent stimulation; the worry and anxiety attendant on the lives of the above-named classes of persons is oftentimes very great, and that there may not result actual injury to the brain, there can hardly be any thing of so much importance as an education and training in some regular pursuit. Without this, the individual is left at a large disadvantage in the use of all the ordinary means of success, or even of securing a living by any honorable course of life; while, having had such a training, he always has the consciousness of possessing these resources; and not only this, but the brain remains in an undeveloped and comparatively weak condition without it.

Mental operations have been more or less active, as this is a necessity during the hours of consciousness, but they have proceeded in an exceedingly limited sphere of thought; they have gone on day after day in a few channels only, while the larger portion of that part of the brain which is connected with thought, or, more accurately speaking, many of the faculties of the mind, have been left in a comparatively undeveloped and inactive condition. The result is similar to that which would occur if only a portion of any other part of the system should be brought into exercise, for instance, one hand or arm, while the remaining portion should be left in an inactive state for a long period.

So true is it that certain trains of thought proceed only in limited channels of the brain, that it is found in experience, that a change of study from a subject which has long been under consideration, to another which has not been, and which is of a different character, and which requires combinations of memories and reasonings of a different order, is almost equivalent to a period of rest. After a period of application in the solution of mathematical problems, and the mind begins to weary of this study, it may, with ease and pleasure be turned to the study of some language; so that persons whose duties cover a wide range of thought and subjects of diverse character, are frequently able to employ themselves with ease more hours in the day than others whose occupations are more uniform and less diversified in character. The law of health and strength applies alike to all portions of the system, and requires a certain degree of activity in all portions, else they remain in an undeveloped or weak condition.

Besides, in the case of the brain and nervous system in general, this lack of education in the direction of labor tends largely to produce too frequent self-distrust and introspection. The individual has little range of mental vision, or measure of that self-confidence which arises from ability in skilled labor, and not having any training in those activities and occupations of life which tend to develop and strengthen the nervous system; and, consequently, being unable to engage in these with any degree of satisfaction, if at all, is likely to pass into a state of self-distrust, doubt, and, after a few years, actual inability to take on any considerable measure of education of the nervous system.

It is, therefore, not surprising that, in the adult period of life, when the care and responsibility of providing for others in addition to one’s self, come upon such persons; and especially when periods of uncertainty and long-continued depression in the market of simple manual labor occur, individuals so illy equipped and helpless amid the competitions of society should become insane in large numbers. And I think it must be confessed that there are in operation certain tendencies, in the progress of modern civilization, which are at present very potent in their influence, as against remedies for this condition; influences which tend to push out of sight the individual, or merge him into a large whole, which moves forward for the accomplishment of purposes, regardless of the individualities which may fall out by the way.

In the strife and competition attending life in all our large towns and cities, there have been developed new methods of conducting business, as well as most of the occupations. Formerly the trades were conducted vastly more by individuals, either alone or in small numbers. Work was done by hand, and frequently at home, so that every father could easily have his child or children, from an early age, in some measure under his own supervision. The natural outcome of this was that children very often followed avocations similar in character to those of their fathers, and began to learn them early in life. Beginning thus early, though the progress toward any considerable degree of proficiency was slow, yet there resulted a symmetrical training and consequent strengthening of the nervous system, during its growing period, which tended to render it largely self-reliant, and was of inestimable value in after-life in securing stability of action. In cases, too, where the children followed other lines of employment, they were early placed in training for them, while the influence of home-life was still strong, and before other habits of thought and less definite and profitable purposes of life had become developed.

In consequence of the great changes which have come to pass by the introduction to so large an extent of machinery, and by the conduct of almost all the trades and mechanical occupations by large numbers of persons in the form of companies, it has become extremely difficult for the young to have any special training for these vocations; there would result too much trouble and inconvenience from their presence.[8]

What now has been substituted in the place of this home-training for business occupations and trades?

One of the substitutes, indeed almost the only one, is that of the public school. We have built palatial houses at the public expense in all our large towns and cities, and into these the children flock by the hundreds, at all ages from five up to eighteen years, and with the largest diversity in reference to physical and mental constitution: the highly sensitive and nervous, with the lymphatic and dull; the weak with the strong; those with the largest mental capacity, with those who have but little. In other words, routine education of the brain by means of books has taken the place of that which was formerly directed to other portions of the system and toward the more practical side of everyday-life.

The importance of such an education of the brain up to a certain period of life, which may vary somewhat according to the individual, both in the interest of the State and of the individual, is readily conceded; but that it should extend beyond the period of thirteen or fourteen years, for that large portion of the community which is to obtain a living by some form of productive industry, is not so evident.

That the brain should have all the training and discipline it can receive with a due regard to bodily health, till that period when the system becomes capable of manual effort and of receiving education, is clear; but from that time forward, why not have it educated in the line of its future industry and activity, whatever that may be?

Does the ability to work out some algebraic or geometrical process, or to conjugate some verb, or decline some noun in the Latin language, or the ability to speak German or French, or the study of music, very much assist him who is to follow any of the ordinary businesses or occupations, unless in exceptional cases? And would not the limited number who are benefited, and who, in consequence, or partly in consequence, are able to push on and enter other spheres of active life, be quite sure of finding the means of doing so in other ways? These acquisitions may be well enough; indeed, should be made essential for persons who are to follow such employments as require mainly brain action alone. But in any country, these persons are the few. There must exist the producing classes, and in almost any state of society these must comprise by far the larger number, both of men and women.

But not only is that part of the public education which is generally obtained between the ages of fourteen and eighteen of little practical value for the ordinary productive avocations of life, but I think it has a strong tendency to unfit persons for entering upon these pursuits. The boy and girl are inclined to think they have secured an education by means of which they are entitled to a living in the world without manual labor, and frequently look upon it as something tending to degrade them, and as appropriate only for those who are ignorant. They have lived too long in the atmosphere of book-learning, and the physical ennui of the school-room, to be willing to undertake and thoroughly master the details of a trade or avocation, and yet have been there too short a time for any thing else. They may make an effort, however, looking toward some middle course, and if any trade is selected they are unwilling to take sufficient time to fully master it; they try to enter by some “short cut,” while in too many cases they prefer to depend on the precarious mode of simple employment in any direction which, for the time, lies open to them. They consequently are in danger, in process of time, of drifting into the class of persons who have no regular occupation.

When viewed in the light of physiology, or of political economy even, the State should educate her young in such a manner and to such an extent as will tend to give the largest measure of health, both of body and mind, to the individual, and make the most self-reliant and self-supporting citizen, rather than give a smattering of algebra or music or astronomy, the remembrance of which will be almost certain to fade into darkness in less than five years after the individual enters upon the active duties of any kind of work in life which does not require their practical use.

How far short of such a procedure she comes by her present methods of education, may be inferred in some measure:

First, from the large numbers who, in all our cities and large towns, fail in the conduct of any general business which may require much skill and experience in its conduct.

Second, from the large numbers of foreign-born and foreign-educated persons who are at present employed in most of the oldest and best known manufactories throughout New England and indeed through the whole country, the number being greatly larger, I understand, than of American-born citizens.

Third, from the fact which has long been recognized, and in some degree commented upon, especially by those who have longest had large opportunities for observation, that during the last twenty or thirty years there has been a rapid diminution in the number of those, especially of the American-born, who apply at the manufacturing establishments to be received as apprentices. While formerly more used to apply for such an education than were required, now very few make such application, while those who do, rarely desire to remain long enough to fully apprehend and apply to practice the details of the industry.

Fourth, from the large numbers who have been educated in our common schools, who are drifting around from place to place, and frequently changing from one kind of business or occupation to another, not unfrequently imagining that they are eminently qualified for some office of a political nature, and dissatisfied if it is refused them, and unable to succeed in any of the callings they may seek to follow.

Fifth, from the large numbers of that class which has no regular employment nor any training for one, and which, at the present time, furnishes so many admissions to our asylums.

Of the inestimable value of brain discipline alone for all that class of persons who are to follow certain vocations, there can be no question; but have we not been hugging the vain delusion, that because the rudiments of book-learning are necessary for every person who is to become a citizen of the Republic, therefore, something further in this direction would be of still greater value to everybody? that, somehow or other, a smattering of book-knowledge would enable everybody to get on in the world without hard work? Have we not forgotten that an education of the nervous system in an occupation, is also one of the brain, and often one of vastly more value in the way of success and health in after-life? I fear that in our appreciation of, and zeal for, the public-school system, where so-called education is poured into the brains of waiting children by the wholesale, we are in danger of forgetting the grand truth, that, after all, the vast majority must earn their living, if at all, by honest labor, and that these persons require such an education as will best qualify them for practical industries.

In saying this much in reference to our public-school system, I am fully aware that I am approaching a subject and calling in question principles which have been supposed long settled, at least so far as this country is concerned. The system of education has become one of great power and large significance, especially in all our cities and large towns. The cost of that in the city of Boston alone, was, last year, more than three millions of dollars, and that of New York and other cities correspondingly large. The disposal of such a vast patronage has become one to be sought for by interested persons; while the introduction of new school-books every few years proves to be sufficiently remunerative to secure large fortunes to those interested.

The question of expense, however, is of little importance as compared with the results of the system in the way of qualifying the subjects for the duties of life, and when this is considered, I am persuaded that a considerable portion of the sum now used could be better used in some other method; and I would, therefore, venture to suggest whether, instead of supporting public schools as they are now constituted for all classes of boys and girls between the ages of thirteen and sixteen or eighteen years, at so large an expense, it would not be better both in the interest of the State and of the individual, so far as the future health of the body and mind, and consequent ability for self-support are concerned, to make some provision whereby future citizens could learn, at least, the elemental steps in some mechanical or business calling?

By beginning thus early, the highest skill in any occupation or calling may be best attained. The nervous system grows into the strength requisite to conduct it in all its diversities much more readily and thoroughly while in its years of growth, than is ever possible in later years. The occupation at this period becomes, so to speak, wrought into the texture of the nervous system, constituting, as it were, a part of it, so that in after-life it is conducted with much less friction and mental anxiety than would otherwise be certain to exist; while the discipline which comes to the brain in the process of learning, should be of quite as much value as may come from other modes of education.

There can be little doubt that statistics would confirm the statement, that a large majority of those men who attain to success in almost any mechanical occupation, are those who began their education in this way, while young; the large majority of inventors in any kind of machinery are those who have thoroughly mastered the details of the kind of work to be done, in early life; while, on the other hand, the larger number of those who fail, are persons who have not been carefully educated in the pursuits they have chosen to follow.

The inferences to be drawn from the above considerations would appear to point in one direction. There can be no doubt that the irritation attending the conduct of a business or employment which has been only half-learned, and the disappointments which come from failure and recognized inability, have largely to do with creating instability of brain-action, and consequent insanity. If, therefore, we desire to do any thing toward diminishing the large numbers from these classes which now require care and treatment in asylums, one of the most efficient means of accomplishing this would be some such change in the course of the public system of education, as would enable these persons to qualify themselves for self-support by various modes and kinds of labor.

The same principles apply equally to domestic service. This, certainly, is one of the most important kinds of labor when regarded in relation to the comfort, happiness, and health of society, while its indirect influence upon family-life is, perhaps, greater than that of almost any other. Probably there exists no other source of so much irritation, discomfort and dissatisfaction, in home-life as the utter inefficiency of domestic service in this country. Perhaps no one cause has more largely contributed toward creating a dislike for family-life, and a tendency to seek hotels and boarding-houses. There is no one more potent influence in creating dyspepsia and ill-health of various kinds than illy prepared food, leaving out of consideration the loss of enjoyment which would come from its use when skilfully prepared.

But the irritation and consequent ill-health are not confined to one party in the contract; they come to both sides. The poor, uneducated, and ignorant servant has perhaps done the best she knew how to do; indeed, it has been her desire and for her interest to do so, but with no previous training, or with the little that could be obtained while at service with wages, what could be expected except failure during the first few years, with consequent worry, anxiety, and ill-health? It would be as unreasonable to expect a person who had never been educated as a cabinet-maker to make good furniture, as to expect food nicely prepared, and a house well cared for, by a person who has not had the means of learning how to do this kind of labor.

Success and ease in the conduct of all kinds of labor are the largest promoters of health and happiness, and yet society goes on satisfying itself with having established public schools in which Bridget may make any proficiency in book-learning she may prove herself capable of, fondly dreaming, that somehow or other, this kind of education, if it only be carried far enough, will make good cooks and efficient housemaids; while schools in which persons could be thoroughly educated for these most important duties, could be established and conducted in all our large cities at a very trifling expense. The results in the way of mental health, as well as convenience and happiness, would, I believe, prove to be of inestimable value to society.

MORAL EDUCATION.

CHAPTER VII.

When sailing with a party of young people, during the last summer, on Long Island Sound, and while there was blowing a stiff breeze, three of the younger members of the party went forward very soon after we started, and stood together on the front part of the boat, in an exposed position. The captain quickly called to them to return to the rear part of the boat, saying there was danger of their becoming wet, or washed from the prow of the boat by the waves, which were rapidly becoming larger. No attention was paid to his call, and he again and with great earnestness warned them to return. Greatly to my surprise, not the slightest attention was paid to his second order, but the young persons continued laughing and talking as if no orders had been given. As the boat was rapidly passing out of the harbor and into a locality more exposed to the wind, and the waves were becoming more dangerous every minute, the captain again shouted to them to return, and had but just done so, when a wave partially covered all of them, and one was barely saved from being washed over-board.

A few days after the above occurrence I was standing not far from a stage-coach which was near the door of a hotel. Very soon a little girl, nine or ten years of age, came near to one of the horses, and began endeavoring to put some flowers into the bridle. The animal soon became restive and looked vicious, while the driver at once warned the child to desist and to keep at a distance. Apparently not the slightest attention was given by the child to this warning, and she was still persisting in her effort, when the driver again, and this time in an angry tone, shouted to her to keep away, adding some statement to the effect that the animal was vicious and would hurt her. No more attention was paid to this than to the driver’s former order by the child, and before any one could remove her, the horse had struck her head with his teeth, leaving a wound, the scar of which will remain for life.

As will be observed, in both the above cases the children were in positions of great danger; they were, in both cases, warned by those who fully understood and explained to them the danger, and who had charge (the one of the boat and the other of the horses). In both cases the children were old enough to fully understand what was said to them, the danger described, and the duty to obey orders so urgently and repeatedly given; and yet their conduct seemed to differ in no respect from what it would have been had no orders been given. Indeed, after the denoûment, they did not appear, in any measure, to realize that they had been to blame for neglecting to obey the directions given.

These cases have not been related as unique, or in any measure remarkable or uncommon in character, but as illustrations of such as may, almost any day, be seen by the visitor at a summer resort, or by physicians in the experience of their daily duties. The children were not half so much to blame as were their parents, who utterly failed in their appreciation of the importance and duty of parental government; who imagined that in order to be a good and kind parent, and to avoid the trouble arising from refusal, one should constantly yield to every wish and whim of the child; and that to refuse a request indicates a lack of kindness and sympathy on the part of the parent, and thus ere long, and indeed very early in life, the child becomes the master of the situation, and feels little or no obligation to yield obedience to authority.

The child who has not learned to obey the parental command is out of the way of learning obedience to any other. Growing up under such an order of home influences, and indulged in nearly all his wishes, he soon comes to believe that he need be under no restraint from authority or duty outside that of his home, and will be in danger of experiencing the penalty of violating both the laws of society and of his own health.

If such cases were rare or exceptional, or if the results were of a temporary nature, they might be considered as of less importance; but this is far from the case. Every physician will readily recall many cases of sick children who have died, not from the irremediable nature of the disease, but because the mother will persist in allowing the child to refuse the use of the necessary measures of relief. Darling Johnnie or Minnie will not submit to disagreeable measures, and fights and screams if any attempt is made to use them. This is extremely unpleasant, and the mother cannot endure to have her pet crossed or thwarted, or obliged to do what it does not wish to, especially while it is ill; and never having required obedience when the child is in health, she is entirely unable to do so, even when the greatest necessity may arise.

Such cases are pitiable in the extreme, as well as highly censurable. If the mischief ended in the less grave instances, as between the child and its parents during childhood, it would be of less importance; but this is far from being true. The effects of such training, or rather lack of training, continue through life with a tendency to much suffering to both children and parents.

One of the first requisites in any course of education for the young is to learn to obey. From the cradle to the grave, man is in constant danger from the effects of violated laws. He is surrounded by laws as with a wall of fire, and their infringement in any measure or degree requires that the penalty be paid to the full. Home and school education should aid the child in learning obedience to these laws while in childhood, that in later life it may constitute a part of his character. No person can become a good citizen, or useful in any considerable measure to either the State or the community in which he may live, without such an education, and is largely liable to become a nuisance, a criminal, or an invalid.

If, however, it is important that the child be educated to obedience so far as his relations to others extend, it is doubly so for his own physical and mental health. I have sometimes thought that the freedom of our institutions and State and national governments greatly favored the general tendency toward lax rules as to conduct, both at home and in school, so that there exists less of self-control, both in home and social life, than under most other forms of government. But, however this may be, I regard it of the highest importance that the child should learn self-control and some self-denial, both for individual and the public good, and when this element of education is lost sight of, and the child is permitted to grow up having his own way in most things, and his every wish gratified, he has a large disadvantage when brought into contact with the friction of adult life.

I have seen not a few young men and women hopelessly stranded in life, whose early education had been one of extreme indulgence. They had never been controlled in home-life, and when projected against the rough experiences of actual life, were brought up with a round turn, or with no turn at all. The shocks were too much for them; they could not bend, nor yield, and were, therefore, broken. The lesson of obedience, which is often one of the most difficult to learn, must be learned, like most other lessons, when young, if it is to be effectually learned.

Again, the acquisition of self-control and obedience to law is essential to mental discipline and training. The operations of the brain are more or less under the control of the will, and the more thoroughly the habit of obedience and self-control is gained, the more fully are all mental operations under individual or will-control. The will is the highest and grandest manifestation of the Ego possible. This it is which lifts man so immeasurably high above all other creatures, and so largely helps him to control his own destiny on earth. By the judicious use of this, he guides his mental operations into channels which lead to happiness and health, or to those tending in the opposite direction; he brings into subjection and control the vast army of his lower passions and desires, making them minister to his own and the higher welfare of society, or he leaves them to run riot, and ultimately to become his master.

If, therefore, he would have a brain capable of healthy mental action, he must learn to have its operations early under the control of his will-power. He must learn to guide it toward its higher and better impulses, and to strengthen it with the best nourishment. He must learn how to use not only his brain but his whole nervous system, and by this means acquire skill in the accomplishment of various kinds of labor. In no other way can he become self-supporting and independent, in the midst of the conflicting and competing tendencies of modern life. Without such self-control and independence he is constantly in danger of drifting down and backward in the grand race in which the society of the present is competing.

I must repeat that obedience to law, whether it be parental, social, or civil, is one of the corner-stones, in fact, the fundamental element, in any efficient and worthy system of education. While I would not go back to the strict system of a hundred years ago, wherein all individuality was lost, and nearly every thing was made to yield to the law element in society, yet I fear that, in the recoil from that system, we have been, and still are, in great danger of going too far in the opposite direction. Freedom of individual thought and action, especially for the young, is in danger of degenerating into mere license, so that, in too many quarters, respect for parental, school, and civil authority is considered an indication of weakness and indecision.

If something beyond mere knowledge of right and wrong always has been necessary, and is likely to be necessary for some ages to come, among adult persons, to deter many of them from violating the laws of society and of their own health; if persons need the fear of penalty in the way of illness, helplessness, and suffering to aid them in conforming to obedience, how much more necessary it is in relation to the young, whose experiences have been so limited, and whose reason is so immature. Hence it is, that the parent and the educator must not only instruct, but enforce obedience.

HEREDITY.

CHAPTER VIII.

It may be remarked, in a general way, that the subject of heredity is one of profoundest significance in its relation to society. Through its influences the peculiarities and characteristics of families and nations are largely developed and perpetuated. It “is that biological law by which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants.”[9] It depends upon “an internal principle of vitality” which is so engraven upon every portion of the system before birth, that its influence remains through life, and within certain limits pertains alike to both the physiological and psychological nature. Not that this influence is such, or operates in such a manner, as to repeat itself in any stereotyped form, but rather in an endless variety of forms; while no child resembles its parents in all respects, yet there ever occurs a blending of the characters of both parents, together with a large number of those characteristics which have, for long generations, been interwoven in multiform shades and degrees in ancestors.

Passing now from the general to the particular, we find, first, in reference to physiological characteristics and peculiarities, that these tend to repeat themselves more or less directly, so that when they have once appeared, they may, with reason, again be expected. Peculiarities of the fingers and toes, of the hair, the shape of the head, the conformation of the face, and even particular portions of the face, remain for long periods in the same family and nations. The characteristic form of face and nose peculiar to the Jew, is an example in point, and so invariable as to lead to recognition, in spite of the changes and vicissitudes incident to travel and residence during many hundreds of years, under climatic conditions of large diversity, and ofttimes experiences of great and protracted severity.

Not only are such peculiarities as may be considered normal transmitted, but also such as are abnormal,—a supernumerary finger or toe, or a mole on some portion of the face or part of the body. A supernumerary finger or toe may be transmitted for at least four generations, though not to every member of the family, and the experiments of Mr. Darwin, with birds, go to show that the tendency to perpetuate such a peculiarity, exhausts itself after a few generations, the type returning to its original character.

Fecundity is also well known as an inherited character. A mother is referred to by Girou,[10] as having had twenty-four children, five of whom, in turn, gave birth to forty-six. A granddaughter of this woman gave birth to sixteen. The females of some families have all or nearly all daughters, who, in turn, have more daughters than sons for several generations. A grandmother had nine daughters, several of whom had no sons in the third generation.

Longevity has long been recognized as one of the most transmissible of family traits.

Cæteris paribus, persons connected with long-lived families have a much more tenacious hold on life than others: the capacity for resisting the changes of climate, the morbific conditions of the atmosphere and soil, the influences of epidemic diseases, and the experiences of privation and hardships, is greater than with other persons; and, conversely, the capacity for resisting these influences is much less with persons whose ancestors have invariably died at an early age.

So also if a person resembles in physical form, complexion, and constitution, the ancestors of one side of his family who have lived to old age, while those on the other side have died comparatively young, his prospects of longevity are generally strengthened in proportion to the extent of such resemblance. M. Levy says: “To be born of healthy and strong parents is to have a good chance of longevity; the energy of the constitution is the best buckler against the assault of destructive causes. Rush did not know an octogenarian whose family did not offer many examples of advanced old age. This observation, made by Sinclair, has acquired the force of an axiom, so common is it to meet with longevity as a frequent occurrence among many members of the same family. Inheritance exercises the same influence on the total duration of life of short period: in the Turgot family scarcely a member passed the fiftieth year; he, who rendered it illustrious, died at the age of fifty-three, in spite of the appearance of great vigor of temperament.”

So familiar to every one are the facts connected with the transmission of morbid physiological processes, that I need not refer to this point further than to remark, that the phthisical, the cancerous, and the scrofulous diatheses are those well known to be more surely inherited, and that through these channels of diseased action whole families cease to exist after two or three generations, unless the tendency is counteracted by more vigorous and healthy influences from the other parent.

Passing now to the psychological traits and characters, we observe that the same law pertains. The heredity of mental qualities is quite as persistent as that of the physical; imagination, memory, will, intellect, the sentiments and passions, may all be inherited. It is estimated that not less than forty per cent. of eminent poets have had illustrious relatives. The families of Darwin, Cuvier, Bacon, Sir Benjamin Brodie, John Adams, Lord Macaulay, Madame de Staël, present good illustrations of the inheritance of intellectual ability.

But no less surely are the characteristics of morbid mental activity transmitted from one generation to another. The records of asylums all indicate that the tendency to insanity, in some of its forms, is one of those most likely to be inherited. It is thought that more than one half of the admissions to English asylums present evidence of an inherited taint. The same is probably true in reference to admissions to asylums in the United States, though it is exceedingly difficult to arrive at the truth in all cases, inasmuch as many persons are inclined to deny that any such tendency exists in their families, lest such a fact should appear to its prejudice in some way or other.

It is not the case, however, that definite forms of insanity always repeat themselves, but, on the contrary, change, so that a case of mania may appear in the second generation as a case of melancholia, or acute dementia; and, vice versa, melancholia may appear as dementia. Information concerning the inheritance of general paralysis is not so definite; indeed, this form of insanity generally manifests itself in those having no tendency by inheritance, and would seem to be more frequent among the strong and robust, and also has a tendency to appear in the very prime of life.

It is not necessary that the tendency toward unstable mental action should be fully developed in the parent in order that it may so appear in the child. Parents who have for years been very odd or singular in their habits of life and manner of speech and mental operations; those who are subject to periods of depression, and are accustomed to look upon the dark side of daily experiences; mothers, more often, perhaps, who have all their lives been “nervous” or irritable and easily excited, impress more or less profoundly these abnormal conditions upon their offspring. Great singularity of conduct habitually displayed, periods of depression, irritableness, and nervousness, when crossed with similar characteristics in the other parent, or other unusual ones, not infrequently develop into actual insanity in succeeding generations.

A good example of such a tendency is related in the April No. of the Journal of Mental Science, 1881.[11] It began on the male side, the father being “eccentric” or “peculiar,” so much so as to attract the attention of the village children. The wife had no peculiarities of sufficient import to be marked. They had four children, three of whom were affected mentally, one female and two males. The female was “uncommon” and “slightly weak-minded.” One of the males was said to have been “weak-minded”; the other was “strange-looking,” and odd in general conduct. He married a woman in good health and free from any special tendency, either mental or physical. There were born eleven children: of these, five were imbecile; two were idiots, and the remaining four were sane. Of these four, two had one child each, one of whom died of phthisis, and the other is at present an imbecile.

A consumptive parent may have children who are free from this particular form of diathesis, and yet at some period of life may be affected with insanity; or parents with an insane diathesis may have offspring who are tainted with scrofula, or phthisis.

Perhaps there are no habits or acquired tendencies which are more surely transmitted than that of dipsomania or alcoholism; nor are there any which are more difficult to eradicate when inherited, or acquired in early life.

This diathesis, however, is not always repeated in form, but frequently passes into other abnormal conditions. Sometimes it manifests itself in some of the forms of insanity; and again in uncontrollable passions, or cruelty, or in idiocy, or again in a failure of moral character, or in epilepsy.

One of the most marked cases which have come under my own observation, occurred in a family resident in K——. The grandfather and father both died prematurely from the effects of alcohol, and one of the children, a lad of seven years, had such a passion for liquor, that he would swallow at once half a tumbler of wine or whiskey unmixed with water, and could never be near alcohol in any of its forms without begging for it. This child, at that age, could not enunciate clearly enough to be understood by those not familiar with him, and had been unable to learn letters, though much care had been expended to effect it.

Gall refers to a similar case, in which both the father and grandfather had prematurely died as drunkards, and a little grandson, exhibited strong tendencies for alcohol when aged only five years.[12]

“Charles X——, son of an eccentric and intemperate father, manifested instincts of great cruelty from infancy. He was sent at an early age to various schools, but was expelled from them all. Being forced to enlist in the army, he sold his uniform for drink, and only escaped a sentence of death on the testimony of physicians, who declared that he was the victim of an irresistible appetite. He was placed under restraint, and died of general paralysis.

“A man of an excellent family of laboring people was early addicted to drink, and died of chronic alcoholism, leaving seven children. The first two of these died at an early age, of convulsions. The third became insane at twenty-two, and died an idiot. The fourth, after various attempts at suicide, fell into the lowest grade of idiocy. The fifth, of passionate and misanthropic temper, broke off all relations with his family. His sister suffers from nervous disorder, which chiefly takes the form of hysteria, with intermittent attacks of insanity. The seventh, a very intelligent workman, but of nervous temperament, freely gives expression to the gloomiest forebodings as to his intellectual future.”[13]

Dr. Morel, after having an opportunity of studying the subject in a very large number of cases observed among the “gamins” of Paris, came to the conclusion, that the effects of alcohol were of the most terrible nature, especially when used in boyhood and early manhood, not alone on those using it, but on their descendants; and that it became manifest in “physical, moral, and mental degenerations.”

Echeverria,[14] who has collected a large number of statistics on the subject, gives the following in reference to the histories of sixty-eight males and forty-seven females who had experienced alcoholism in some of its forms: The number of children born to these persons was four hundred and seventy-six: and of this total, twenty-three were still-born; one hundred and seven died from convulsions in infancy; thirty-seven died from other maladies; three committed suicide; ninety-six are epileptic; thirteen are congenital idiots; nineteen, maniacal or hypochondriacal; seven have general paralysis; five, locomotor ataxy; twenty-six, hysteria; twenty-three, paralysis; nine, chorea; seven, strabismus; three are deaf; and nineteen are scrofulous and crippled. Of these children, two hundred and five (205), or nearly fifty per cent., have exhibited drinking tendencies.

From the above statistics it appears that of all the nervous diatheses which may be inherited, there are none which are more invariable in their effects, or more surely disastrous to their unfortunate victims, than that of alcoholism.

In short, imperfection and abnormality of nerve function in its relation to mind, especially of intellect and character, of all shades and degrees, may be inherited as well as acquired; and this is equally true when the condition has not attained to that of actual disease, but simply a tendency toward it. And if such tendency should exist on both sides of the house, it becomes increased in the offspring in geometrical ratio, except in so far as it may become modified through the influence of counteracting qualities of character under the law of atavism.

The question now arises: By what measures, or through what influences, if any, can such proneness to nervous diatheses be avoided? It may be replied, that there are two channels through which partial relief may come; but that any substantial results may follow, it will become necessary that education concerning the laws of heredity shall become more general, and the importance of right conduct in relation to them impressed especially on the minds of young persons.

First.—Through the influence of that law of heredity by means of which there may occur an elimination of weaknesses and proclivities toward disease. This influence comes from the healthy side of parentage; for instance, in the case of parents, one of whom has physical or psychological tendencies toward disease, if the other has a healthy and vigorous constitution, and is endowed with mental qualities of an opposite character, these forces of the system may prove to be quite sufficient to affect or neutralize those which, on the other side of the house, lead toward disease, and the offspring may have an inheritance nearly, or quite, free from such influence.

This is not unfrequently witnessed in the case even of the strongest hereditary diseases, namely those of phthisis and insanity. The offspring of mothers with proclivities toward either of these diseases, in case the father is strong, may escape entirely or nearly so; this is very often true when the well parent has an unusual power of transmitting race-characteristics, and belongs to a family which has been noted for longevity during two or three generations.

In this hereditary influence there lies a power of incalculable value to the human race, a power conducing toward the elimination of morbid diatheses, which otherwise would go on increasing in almost geometrical ratio, until families, or even whole communities, would become diseased.

The tendencies toward health, under favorable circumstances, are greater than toward disease, and, therefore, there exists a probability that race-characteristics on the healthy side may prevail over those on the unhealthy side of the house, though this may not always be found to be true in actual experience.

Through this line of influence, and this only, can there exist any probability of diminishing the increase of inherited insanity. Governments and society encourage, and rightly so, the institution of the marriage relation; the family is the corner-stone of society, and on it are reared the fabrics of civilization and civil institutions. Probably from no other practice or custom does there ensue so large effects in the way of happiness, prosperity, morality, and well-being to the human race, as from that of marriage; but the conditions of a large part of the beneficent results of this institution, depend upon freedom from certain tendencies to disease. Communities and states are composed of units, and their strength and stability must depend upon that of the individuals composing them. Quite in the degree that disease or degenerations, physical or mental, exist in any community, in that measure prosperity and happiness are diminished; so that from the stand-point of political economy, even, it becomes of vast importance that the laws of hereditary influence should be more fully understood.

The instinct of love, however, is so powerful in the vast majority of the human race, that it overrides almost all other considerations. Persons do not stop to consider consequences to themselves, or to those who are to come after; they are borne on by the considerations of a present fancy or sentiment, and there is reason to fear that any legal enactments, or regulations, even, in the present state of knowledge on this subject, would not be worth the paper on which they might be inscribed.

Probably the only thing which can be done is to instruct the public, and make known, so far as possible, the influences of hereditary tendencies, publishing them in the higher text-books of schools, and in periodicals. It might be more clearly understood in reference to marriage, that a sentimental fancy or a choice founded on the existence of like characteristics, either mental or physical, not only often proves to be of little real value in after-life toward securing happiness, but on the other hand proves, too often, to be the source of vast misery to parents, their children, and the community in which they may live; that the highest consideration for the present and future should lead to careful examination as to inherited characteristics on both sides, and of a selection which may tend toward elimination, rather than an increase, of these. It might be more fully understood that, generally, characteristics of body and mind of different qualities, within certain degrees of limit, contribute toward securing a well-balanced and healthy system, and also toward a larger degree of happiness in domestic relations; that acquired diatheses, as well as those inherited, are transmitted to those who come after; that violations of the laws of healthy brain activity are almost sure to be punished in the persons of children, whether they have consisted in immoderate devotion to business or study, or in any of the physical indulgences. In this way some advance may be hoped for, in guiding toward that course in which lies the least danger.

The old adage, however, that “the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge,” was a truth well understood some thousands of years ago,—and yet the fathers go on indulging in sour grapes, because the great truth fails to have taught its lesson, and the heedlessness of youth requires line upon line, and precept upon precept, as well as, ofttimes, the sternest of discipline. The future will doubtless be, in a large degree, as in the past, but we may hope that when the laws of inheritance are more commonly known, when the learning of them becomes a part of the general education of the young, their influence will be more beneficent than at the present time.

Especially may we have reason to expect that such will prove to be the result in reference to those diatheses which are formed through the influence of alcohol and tobacco, or by the indulgence of the lower passions, but the elimination of insanity by these means can, at the most, be only partial.

The second measure by means of which the unfavorable influences of heredity may be modified in their subjects, is that of education.

I confidently believe the day will come when the first question which will be asked concerning a child who is to commence an education, will be as to his or her inheritance; and after obtaining all possible information concerning this point, it will be a part of the teacher’s duty to study the physical and mental traits and tendencies of each child in the light of this information. The time will come when the importance of individuality in education will be so highly appreciated that it will be considered as essential in all recognized systems. Already there has been a beginning in this direction, in reference to certain classes of children. It is not many years since feeble-minded children were treated as most others now are, and were left to get any little education they might be able to, with all others. Gradually the importance of individual education for these weak-minded ones has dawned on the public mind; so that by systems now in use, many of these, otherwise almost utterly useless members of the community, have been trained to a degree of usefulness and self-support.

What has been done for this class should be done for all classes of persons whose inheritance has in any measure been of a morbid character. These pyschic neuroses group themselves into certain forms, often at an early age, and require special care and training from childhood, lest they develop into actual disease in later life. Among these may be mentioned the following:

For each of these classes of children special lines of education and management should be followed, and they should be of such a character as may tend to repress and correct tendencies of character which in the future will be almost certain to become morbid. The professional observations of most physicians who have large experience with diseases of the nervous system, will suggest the cases of patients who have become insane, and in whose inheritances and histories some of the above-named characters have been specially prominent in childhood.

Whatever, therefore, is to be done with a view to modify proclivities toward those morbid neuroses which result from hereditary influences, or have been acquired through the force of habit, must be accomplished mainly through the influence of education, reaching, in different channels, both parents and children.

CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGES.

CHAPTER IX.

On the other hand, there have been adduced numerous statistics which indicate that no unfavorable results follow such marriages, which can fairly be considered as arising from consanguinity. Without entering fully into the details of this discussion, I propose simply to indicate certain principles and facts which have been pretty definitely settled, and such inferences as may appear to be entirely legitimate, and also have a bearing on our subject. For a more exhaustive examination of the question, I may refer the reader to Ribot, on “Heredity,” and Miles, on “Stock-Breeding.”

1. The ancient Egyptians, the Persians, the Syrians, and some other nations, were accustomed to practise consanguineous marriages. Brothers married sisters, cousins married cousins in all degrees of relationship, and sometimes even fathers cohabited with their own daughters. Dr. McGraw[15] says “there can be no doubt that close and continual interbreeding has taken place time and again, without evident injurious consequences, among simple and uncultivated communities. Notable examples are the Pitcairn Island settlements, formed from the close in-and-in-breeding of the progeny of four mutineers from the ship Bounty, and nine native women; the small community of fishermen, near Brighton, England; the numerous small and isolated villages of Iceland; and the Basque and Bas-Breton settlements among the Pyrenees. We must admit, from overwhelming evidence, that under such circumstances as the settlements just mentioned afforded, consanguinity among married people does not necessarily cause evil results to the progeny. If it be asked how it would be with men of more civilized habits, we are unfortunately obliged to confess that there are no statistics whatever on the subject which can give us any exact and trustworthy information.”

2. Experiments in interbreeding of cattle go to prove that in some cases, at least, this may be continued for many generations with no unfavorable results. A friend of mine has bred in-and-in a herd of Jersey cattle, as close as a father to his progeny, for five generations, and with apparently good results.

I have a flock of India pigeons which have been in-bred for fifteen years to my own knowledge, and apparently with no deterioration. They are still strong, vigorous, and prolific.

There is a herd of wild cattle now in the Chillingham Park, England, which has been confined there for several hundred years, and strictly isolated. No new strains have been introduced, and the herd still remains hardy and healthy.

On the other hand, there exists a general impression among physicians, based upon experience and observation of a general character, that marriages of consanguinity result, more often than other marriages, in unfavorable effects upon offspring; and the statistics collected by Dr. Bemis and others appear, on first examination, to confirm such conclusions.

The majority of farmers and stock-breeders in this country act upon the theory that it is important and, indeed, necessary, in order to maintain herds and flocks in a healthy condition, to frequently introduce other strains of blood; and the farmer who should fail to do this in reference to his cattle, his swine, and fowls, would be entitled to little sympathy in case his animals should degenerate in any measure physically, or become less prolific.

Now, the well-established principles of heredity appear to confirm, in a general way, both these views. The qualities of parents whether healthy or unhealthy are transmitted to offspring; and if all herds of cattle and swine and flocks of fowls were in a strictly healthy condition, there would exist no reasons why they might not remain so indefinitely, so far as interbreeding is concerned.

The conditions of animal life, however, under the influence of civilization, are certainly more unfavorable to health than when in a native condition. This is especially true of those classes upon which we depend for labor. The change from animal life on the broad prairies and woods of a temperate zone, to life in stables of crowded cities and yards of farmers, many of which are in any thing but a sanitary condition, and to the experience of daily exposure and labor, and ofttimes to ill treatment and improper food, induces disease no less surely among animals than among the human race.

If either men or animals were in a condition of perfect health, there would be no unfavorable results from marriages of consanguinity, or other marriages, as there would exist no imperfections, either physical or mental, to be transmitted. No such persons, however, are found. All are tainted with the seeds of disease to a greater or less extent, and health is a question of degree. If, now, two persons of a phthisical or insane diathesis contract marriage, the tendency toward such a diathesis will be greatly increased in the offspring. If this tendency in each parent be represented by two, then it will be two multiplied by two in the offspring, except so far as it may be modified through the influence of atavism. This would be the case without reference to the question of consanguinity.

But blood-relatives are vastly more likely to inherit a similar diathesis—indeed, are quite sure to do so, if it be one of unhealthy character,—and the atavic influences would also be similar; so that any counteracting effect through this influence would be much less between blood-relations than with others, and would probably be the greatest when no such relation exists.

Here, then, becomes apparent the danger arising from consanguineous marriages, i. e., that of perpetuating and intensifying unfavorable physical and mental traits, which may be alike on both sides. Where no such relation exists, there is a great probability that other counteracting qualities of character and hereditary influences may modify and even remove weaknesses, while, with such a relation existing, there is every probability that weaknesses or tendencies toward disease, both physical and mental, whether inherited or acquired, will become greatly increased.

Therefore, as there exist in many families, undesirable traits of character, both physical and mental, a removal or diminution of which is desirable; and as there is a greater probability that this can be more surely done, of whatever nature they may be, by introducing other and opposing tendencies from unrelated families, it would appear to be highly important, as a rule, to discountenance marriages of persons who are related to each other by ties of blood.

ALCOHOL.