When the egg of the ox breeze-fly (Hypoderma bovis, Latr.) is hatched, it immediately (if Mr. Bracey Clark be correct) burrows into the skin; while, according to Réaumur, it is hatched there. At all events, the grub is found in a bump on the animal’s back, resembling a gall on a tree,—“a place,” says Réaumur, “where food is found in abundance, where it is protected from the weather, where it enjoys at all times an equal degree of warmth, and where it finally attains maturity.”[GS] When in an advanced stage, the bumps appear much like the swellings produced upon the forehead by a smart blow. These, with the grubs, are represented in the foregoing figure, and also at page 434.
Every bump, according to Réaumur, has in its inside a cavity, which is a lodging proportionate to the size of the insect. The bump and cavity also increase in proportion to the growth of the grub. It is not until about the middle of May that these bumps can be seen full grown. Owing to particular circumstances, they do not all attain an equal size. The largest of them are sixteen or seventeen lines in diameter at their base, and about an inch high; but they are scarcely perceptible before the beginning or during the course of the winter.
It is commonly upon young cattle, such, namely, as are two or three years old, that the greatest number of bumps is found; it being rare to observe them upon very old animals. The fly seems to be well aware that such skins will not oppose too much resistance, and seems to know, also, that tender flesh is the most proper for supplying good nourishment to its progeny. “And why,” asks Réaumur, “should not the instinct which conducts it to confide its eggs to the flesh of certain species only, lead it to prefer the flesh of animals of the same species which is most preferable?” The number of bumps which are found upon a beast is equal to the number of eggs which have been deposited in its flesh; or, to speak more correctly, to the number of eggs which have succeeded, for apparently all are not fertile; but this number is very different upon different cattle. Upon one cow only three or four bumps may be observed, while upon another there will appear from thirty to forty. They are not always placed on the same parts, nor arranged in the same manner: commonly, they are near the spine, but sometimes upon or near the thighs and shoulders. Sometimes they are at remote distances from each other; at other times they are so near that their circumferences meet. In certain places, three or four tumors may be seen touching each other; and more than a dozen sometimes occur arranged as closely together as possible.
It is very essential to the grub that the hole of the tumor should remain constantly open; for by this aperture a communication with the air necessary for respiration is preserved; and the grub is thence placed in the most favourable position for receiving air. Its spiracles for respiration, like those of many other grubs, are situated immediately upon the posterior extremity of the body. Now, being almost always placed in such a situation as to have this part above, or upon a level with the external aperture, it is enabled to respire freely.[GT]
We have not so many examples of galls of this kind as we have of vegetable galls; and when we described the surprising varieties of the latter, we did not perceive that it was essential to the insects inhabiting them to preserve a communication with the external air: in the galls of trees, openings expressly designed or kept free for the admission of air are never observed. Must the grub, then, which inhabits the latter have less need of respiring air than the grub of the breeze-flies in a flesh-gall? Without doubt, not; but the apertures by which the air is admitted to the inhabitants of the woody gall, although they may escape our notice, in consequence of their minuteness, are not, in fact, less real. We know that, however careful we may be in inserting a cork into a glass, the mercury with which it is filled is not sheltered from the action of the air, which weighs upon the cork; we know that the air passes through, and acts upon the mercury in the tube. The air can also, in the same way, penetrate through the obstruction of a gall of wood, though it have no perceptible opening or crack; but the air cannot pass in this manner so readily through the skins and membranes of animals.
In order to see the interior of the cavity of an animal gall, Réaumur opened several, either with a razor or a pair of scissors; the operation, however, cannot fail to be painful to the cow, and consequently renders it impatient under the process. The grub being confined in a tolerably large fistulous ulcer, a part of the cavity must necessarily be filled with pus or matter. The bump is a sort of cautery, which has been opened by the insect, as issues are made by caustic: the grub occupies this issue, and prevents it from closing. If the pus or matter which is in the cavity, and that which is daily added to it, had no means of escaping, each tumor would become a considerable abscess, in which the grub would perish; but the hole of the bump, which admits the entrance of the air, permits the pus or matter to escape; that pus frequently mats the hairs together which are above the small holes, and this drying around the holes acquires a consistency, and forms in the interior of the opening a kind of ring. This matter appears to be the only aliment allowed for the grub, for there is no appearance that it lives, like the grubs of flesh-flies, upon putrescent meat. Mandibles, indeed, similar to those with which other grubs break their food, are altogether wanting. A beast which has thirty, forty, or more of these bumps upon its back, would be in a condition of great pain and suffering, terrible indeed in the extreme, if its flesh were torn and devoured by as many large grubs; but there is every appearance that they do not at all afflict, or only afflict it with little pain. For this reason cattle most covered with bumps are not considered by the farmer as injured by the presence of the fly, which generally selects those in the best condition.
A fly, evidently of the same family with the preceding, is described in Bruce’s ‘Travels,’ under the name of zimb, as burrowing during its grub state in the hides of the elephant, the rhinoceros, the camel, and cattle. “It resembles,” he says, “the gad-fly in England, its motion being more sudden and rapid than that of a bee. There is something peculiar in the sound or buzzing of this insect; it is a jarring noise together with a humming, which as soon as it is heard all the cattle forsake their food and run wildly about the plain till they die, worn out with fatigue, fright, and hunger. I have found,” he adds, “some of these tubercles upon almost every elephant and rhinoceros that I have seen, and attribute them to this cause. When the camel is attacked by this fly, his body, head, and legs break out into large bosses, which swell, break, and putrefy, to the certain destruction of the creature.”[GU] That camels die under such symptoms, we do not doubt; but we should not, without more minutely-accurate observation, trace all this to the breeze-fly.
MM. Humboldt and Bonpland discovered, in South America, a species, probably of the same genus, which attacks man himself. The perfect insect is about the size of our common house-fly (Musca domestica), and the bump formed by the grub, which is usually on the belly, is similar to that caused by the ox breeze-fly. It requires six months to come to maturity; and if it is irritated it eats deeper into the flesh, sometimes causing fatal inflammations.
Grub Parasite in the Snail.
During the summer of 1829, we discovered in the hole of a garden-post, at Blackheath, one of the larger grey snail shells (Helix aspersa, Muller), with three white soft-bodied grubs burrowing in the body of the snail. They evidently, from their appearance, belonged to some species of beetle, and we carefully preserved them in order to watch their economy. It appeared to us that they had attacked the snail in its stronghold while it was laid up torpid for the winter; for more than half of the body was already devoured. They constructed for themselves little cells attached to the inside of the shell, and composed of a sort of fibrous matter, having no distant resemblance to shag tobacco, both in form and smell, and which could be nothing else than the remains of the snail’s body. Soon after we took them, appearing to have devoured all that remained of the poor snail, we furnished them with another, which they devoured in the same manner. They formed a cocoon of the same fibrous materials during the autumn, and in the end of October appeared in their perfect form, turning out to be Drilus flavescens, the grub of which was first discovered in France in 1824. The time of their appearance, it may be remarked, coincides with the period when snails become torpid. (J. R.)
In the following autumn, we found a shell of the same species with a small pupa-shaped egg deposited on the lid. From this a caterpillar was hatched, which subsequently devoured the snail, spun a cocoon within the shell, and was transformed into a small moth (of which we have not ascertained the species) in the spring of 1830.
[Before concluding the account of the parasite insects, it will be necessary to mention two of our British Ichneumonidæ, which not only deposit their eggs in the larvæ of other insects, but make for themselves cells of very beautiful structure. In the accompanying illustration are shown the cells of one of our commonest and most useful ichneumonidæ (Microgaster glomeratus), together with the insect itself. At Fig. 1a (p. 438) is shown the little insect of the natural size, and the same is given at 1 much magnified.
This creature lays its eggs in the body of the cabbage caterpillar, forty or fifty eggs being deposited in the same larva. They soon hatch into little transparent grubs, which lie under the skin, and live on the fatty parts of the caterpillar, which continues to grow, and seems to thrive, whereas its bulk is largely made up of the ichneumon larvæ.
After the caterpillar ceases from feeding, it crawls aside for the purpose of assuming the pupal state. But, before it can do so, the ichneumon larvæ, which have also ceased from feeding, burst their way through the sides of the caterpillar, and immediately begin to spin their cocoon. These are oval, very small, and covered with yellow silk. A group of these cocoons is shown at Fig. 3. The innumerable fibres of these cocoons hamper the caterpillars so much that, in most cases, it seldom is able to stir from the spot, but dies in the midst of its enemies. Groups of these yellow cocoons can be found in every wall or paling near cabbage gardens. In a few days, the larvæ have passed through their pupal stage, assuming the winged state, and emerge from the cocoons through little circular doors, as seen in Fig. 2.
Our second illustration represents another species, Microgaster alveolarius, together with its cocoons. As before, the insect is shown of its natural size at la, and magnified at 1. The preliminary life of this insect is exactly the same as that of the preceding; but, instead of making a number of independent and separate cocoons, the insects spin so closely together that they form an edifice very much resembling a bee-comb. Fig. 5 represents one of these cell-groups of the natural size, and the edge of another group is shown at Fig. 4. A longitudinal section, slightly enlarged, is given at 3, in order to show the hexagonal shape assumed by the aggregated cells; and Fig. 2 shows the little lids which open to give egress to the insect. All these figures are drawn from specimens in my collection.]
LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND
CHARING CROSS.
[A] Stephens’ Illustrations, vol. i., p. 72, note.
[B] Contemplation de la Nature, part ii. ch. 42.
[C] The original observations in this volume which are marked by the initials J. R., are by J. Rennie, A.M., A.L.S., and those which are enclosed in brackets are by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., F.L.S.
[D] Introduction to Entomology, vol. i.
[E] Dunciad, book iv.
[F] Humboldt, Voyage, lib. vii., ch. 20.
[G] Amer. Ornith., i., p. 144.
[H] Amer. Ornith., iii., p. 21.
[I] Blumenbach; see also Insect Transformations, p. 231.
[J] Nomina si pereant, perit et cognitio rerum.
[K] J. R., in Mag. of Natural History, vol. i., p. 334.
[L] Miss Jermyn’s Butterfly Collector, p. 11.
[M] Generally to ametabolous pupæ.
[N] See Spallanzani’s Tracts, by Dalyell, vol. i.
[O] Ray, Hist. Insect., 254.
[P] The fifth order of Linnæus; insects with four transparent veined wings.
[Q] Naturalist’s Calendar, p. 100.
[R] Introduction to Entomology, vol. i. p. 435, 5th edit.
[T] Shapeless.
[U] The Owl observed by Vieillot in St. Domingo digs itself a burrow two feet in depth, at the bottom of which it deposits its eggs upon a bed of moss.
[V] American Ornithology, by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 69.
[W] Réaumur, vol. vi. bottom of page 182; Hist. of Selb. ii. 228; and Introd. to Entomol. i. 504, 5th edition.
[X] In the Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1839, p. 458, Mr. Shuckard gives an account of the nest of a wasp, which he regards as _Vespa Britannica_,—remarkable for the material of which it was constructed, and for the locality in which it was found. This nest, which was exhibited at a meeting of the Entomological Society, was found near Croydon, built in a sparrow’s nest, and attached to the lining feathers. “The smallness of the nest,” says Mr. Shuckard, “and also of the tier of cells, as well as the peculiar material of which it appeared composed, led to a discussion, the tendency of which seemed to support the opinion that it was most probably the nest of a Polistes, a social-wasp not yet found in this country, but if not of Polistes, certainly not yet determined or known.” The nest was ovate, about an inch and a half long, with a tier of cells internally, originating from a common pedicle. It appeared to be constructed “of the agglutinated particles of a soft white wood, probably willow, very imperfectly triturated;” whence it had externally a rough granulated appearance. It was sprinkled with black specks, arising perhaps from the intermixture of more decayed portions of the wood; and was of a very fragile texture. “The nature of the material, and its unfinished execution, as well as the situation in which it was found, appear to me to be its own peculiarities, and I must necessarily consider it merely an accidental variation in material and locality from the usual nests of the Vespa Britannica of Leach.”
[Y] Mémoires sur les Insectes, tom. vi., mem. vii. See also Bonnet vol. ix.
[Z] It is right to remark that Huish and others have suggested that the grubs thus royalized may originally be misplaced queens; yet this admission is not necessary, since Madlle. Jurine has proved, by dissection, the workers to be imperfect females.
[AA] Huber on Bees, p. 338.
[AB] Melisselogia, or Female Monarchy, 8vo., Lond. 1744.
[AC] De la Pluche, Spectacle de la Nature, vol. i.
[AD] Philosophical Trans. for 1792, p. 143.
[AE] Huber on Bees.
[AF] American Quarterly Review for June, 1828, p. 382.
[AG] Latreille, Mém. Acad. des Sciences, 1821.
[AH] Huber on Bees, p. 325.
[AI] From two Greek words [Greek: pro polis] meaning _before the city_, as the substance is principally applied to the projecting parts of the hive.
[AJ] Phil. Trans. for 1807, p. 242.
[AK] Schirach, Hist. des Abeilles, p. 241.
[AL] Kirby and Spence observed bees very busy in collecting propolis from the tacamahaca-tree (_Populus balsamifera_).—Introd., ii. 186.
[AM] Huber on Bees, p. 408.
[AN] Philosophical Trans. for 1807, p. 242.
[AO] Spectacle de la Nature, tome i.
[AP] Huber on Bees, p. 358.
[AQ] Réaumur, vol. v., p. 380.
[AR] Huber on Bees, p. 368.
[AS] Huber on Bees, p. 220.
[AT] Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. ii. p. 260.
[AU] Bevan on Bees, p. 326.
[AV] Huber on Bees, p. 416.
[AW] Huber on Bees, p. 391.
[AX] From two Greek words, signifying _pitch_ and _wax_.
[AY] Huber on Bees, p. 415.
[AZ] Spectacle de la Nature, vol. i.
[BA] North American Rev., Oct. 1828, p. 355.
[BB] “Hibernia dives lactis ac _mellis_ insula.”—Beda, Hist. Eccles. i. 7.
[BC] Deut. xxxii. 13.
[BD] Psalm lxxxi. 16.
[BE] Forbes, Orien. Mem. i.
[BF] Amer. Q. Rev., iii. p. 383.
[BG] Roy. Mil. Chron. quoted by Kirby and Spence.
[BH] “Cantu querulæ rumpent arbusta cicadæ.”—Georg. iii. 328.
[BI] A line is about the twelfth part of an inch.
[BJ] Introd., vol. i. p. 457.
[BK] Roesel, cl. ii., Pap. Nocturn., tab. xx. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
[BM] Contemplation de la Nature, part XV. chap. 38.
[BN] A cement prepared of volcanic earth, or lava.
[BO] It is justly remarked by Réaumur, that when caterpillars are left at liberty among their native plants, it is only by lucky chance they can be observed building their cocoons, because the greater number abandon the plants upon which they have been feeding, to spin up in places at some distance. In order to see their operations, they must be kept in confinement, particularly in boxes with glazed doors, where they may be always under the eye of the naturalist. In such circumstances, however, we may be ignorant what building materials we ought to provide them with for their structures. A red caterpillar, with a few tufts of hair, which Réaumur found in July feeding upon the flower bunches of the nettle, and refusing to touch the leaves, began in a few days to prepare its cocoon, by gnawing the paper lid of the box in which it was placed. This, of course, was a material which it could not have procured in the fields, but it was the nearest in properties that it could procure; for, though it had the leaves and stems of nettles, it never used a single fragment of either. When Réaumur found that it was likely to gnaw through the paper lid of the box, and might effect its escape, he furnished it with bits of rumpled paper, fixed to the lid by means of a pin; and these it chopped down into such pieces as it judged convenient for its structure, which it took a day to complete. The moth appeared four weeks after, of a brownish-black colour, mottled with white, or rather grey, in the manner of lace.
Bonnet also mentions more than one instance in which he observed caterpillars making use of paper, when they could not procure other materials.
[BP] Kirby, in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. v. p. 246, and Introd. ii.
[BR] Réaumur, ‘Mém. Hist. Insectes,’ iii. 70.
[BS] ‘Contemplation de la Nature,’ part xii. chap. x. note.
[BT] ‘Animal Biography,’ vol. iii. p. 330, Third Edition.
[BU] Bonnet, xi. p. 204; Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction,’ i. 464, Fifth Edition.
[BV] Bonnet, vol. ix. p. 203.
[BW] ‘Mém. Hist. Insect.’ iii. p. 106.
[BX] Réaumur, iii. p. 130.
[BY] Bonnet, ‘Contempl. de la Nature,’ part xii.
[BZ] Swammerd., ‘Book of Nature,’ vol. ii. p. 84.
[CA] ‘Contempl. de la Nature,’ part xii. p. 197.
[CB] Bonnet, ‘Observ. sur les Insectes,’ vol. ii. p. 425.
[CC] Dict. Classique d’Hist. Nat. Art. Grillon.
[CD] Natural History of Selborne, ii. 82.
[CE] Entomologie, par R. A. E. 18mo., Paris, 1826, p. 168.
[CF] Natural History of Selborne.
[CG] Act. Acad. Berolin. 1752, et Gleditsch, Phys. Botan., quoted by Kirby and Spence, ii. 353.
[CH] Moufet, 153. Kirby and Spence, ii. 350.
[CI] Journal of a Naturalist, p. 311.
[CJ] Bingley, Anim. Biog., vol. iii, p. 230.
[CK] Phil. Trans., vol. xliv. p. 579.
[CL] Anim. Biog., vol. iii. p. 233.
[CM] Anderson’s Recr. in Agricult., vol. iii. p. 420.
[CN] Hints, p. 74.
[CO] Journal of a Naturalist, p. 304.
[CP] A line is the twelfth part of the old French inch. _See_ Companion to the Almanac for 1830, p. 114.
[CQ] M. P. Huber on Ants, p. 20.
[CR] Stedman’s Surinam, vol. i. p. 160.
[CS] M. P. Huber on Ants, p. 23.
[CT] Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Fourmis.
[CU] Dr. Cleghorn, Thesis de Somno.
[CV] Aristotle Hist. Animal. ix. 38. Pliny says, “Operantur et noctu plenâ lunâ; eadem interlunio cessant,” _i.e._, They work in the night at full moon, but they leave off between moon and moon. It is the latter that we think doubtful.
[CW] M. P. Huber on Ants, p. 31.
[CX] Huber on Ants, p. 43.
[CY] In formicâ non modo sensus, sed etiam mens, ratio, memoria.
[CZ] Aldrovandus de Formicis, and Johnston, Thaumaturg. Nat. p. 356.
[DA] See Professor Paxton’s Illustrations of Scripture, i. 307.
[DB] Huber on Ants, p. 15.
[DC] Huber on Ants, p. 11.
[DD] Huber, p. 56.
[DE] The acid of ants.
[DF] Huber.
[DG] Hawkesworth’s Account of Cook’s First Voyage.
[DH] Phil. Trans., xxx. p. 346.
[DI] Jobson’s Gambia, in Purchas’s Pilgrim, ii. p. 1570.
[DJ] Heber’s Journal, vol. i. p. 248.
[DK] Smeathman, in Phil. Trans., vol. lxxi.
[DL] Smeathman.
[DM] Quoted by De Geer, vol. vii.
[DN] Hist. Nat. Générale, vol. xiii. p. 66.
[DO] Smeathman, in Phil. Trans., vol. lxxi. p. 169, note.
[DP] Latreille, Hist. Nat. Générale, tom. xiii. p. 64.
[DQ] Lyonnet.
[DR] Spectacle de la Nature, vol. i.
[DS] Cours d’Agriculture, par M. Rozier. Paris, 1801.
[DT] This is denied by recent observers.
[DU] Spectacle de la Nature, vol. i.
[DV] Count Dandolo’s Art of Rearing Silk-Worms, Eng. Transl., p. 215.
[DW] On a tort de croire que le bruit nuise à ces insectes, Hist. Nat. Générale, vol. xiii. p. 170.
[DX] Shaw’s Gen. Zoology, vol. vi.
[DY] North American Review, Oct. 1828, p. 449.
[DZ] Essay on the Silk-Worm, p. 95. London, 1719.
[EA] Preface to Dandolo on the Silk-Worm, Eng. Transl., p. xiii.
[EB] Glover’s Directory of the County of Derby, Introd., p. xvi.
[EC] Memecken, quoted by Kirby and Spence, iii. 280.
[ED] Brahm’s Ins. Nat. 289, and Kirby and Spence’s Intr. iii, 223.
[EE] De Geer, Mém. i. 319.
[EF] Curtis, Hist. of Brown-tail Moth, 4to. London, 1782.
[EG] Réaumur, ii. p. 137.
[EH] Salisbury, Hints on Orchards, p. 53.
[EI] Hardy’s Travels in the Interior of Mexico, p. 32.
[EJ] Hill’s Swammerdam, part i. p. 23.
[EK] Swammerdam, part i. p. 24.
[EL] Intr., vol. i. p. 415.
[EM] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. Intr. p. 416.
[EN] Porcupines do not shoot out their quills, as was once generally believed.
[EO] Lister, Hist. Animalia Angliæ, 4to. p. 7.
[EP] Phil. Mag., ii. p. 275.
[EQ] Vol. i. Intr., p. 417.
[ER] Phil. Mag., ii. p. 339.
[ES] Nat. Hist. of Selborne, vol. i. p. 327.
[ET] Book of Nature, part i. p. 25.
[EU] Hist. Anim. Angliæ, 4to.
[EV] Mémoires, vol. vii. p. 189.
[EW] Spectacle de la Nature, vol. i.
[EX] Book of Nature, part i. p. 25.
[EY] Animal Biography, vol. iii. p. 475, 3rd edition.
[EZ] Brez, Flore des Insectophiles. Notes, Supp. p. 134.
[FA] Thomson’s Ann. of Philosophy, vol. iii. p. 306.
[FB] Loudon’s Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 322.
[FC] Experim. Researches in Nat. Hist., p. 136.
[FD] Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 324.
[FE] Linn. Trans., vol. xv. p. 456.
[FF] Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. ii. p. 397.
[FG] Linn. Trans., vol. xv. p. 453.
[FH] “——L’un des bouts de ces premiers fils, afin que le vent ou un courant d’air pousse l’autre extrémité de l’un d’eux au de là de l’obstacle.”—Dict. Classique d’Hist. Nat., vol. i. p. 510.
[FI] Evelyn’s Travels in Italy.
[FJ] Book of Nature, part i. p. 24.
[FK] Bloomfield’s Remains, vol. ii. p. 64, _note_.
[FL] Animal Biography, iii. 470-1.
[FM] Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences pour 1707, p. 339.
[FN] Kirby and Spence, Intr. i. 419.
[FO] Darwin’s Zoonomia, i. 253, 8vo. ed.
[FP] Mém. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, An. vii.
[FQ] Mém. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, p. 125, and Latreille, Hist. Nat. Géuér. viii. p. 163.
[FR] Kirby and Spence, Intr. i. 425.
[FS] Aranei Suecici, Stockholm, 1757.
[FT] Mém. des Araign. Aquat., 12mo. Paris, 1799.
[FU] Clerck, Aranei Suecici, cap. viii.
[FV] De Geer, Mém. des Insectes, vii. 312.
[FW] Spectacle de la Nature, i. 58.
[FX] Linn. Trans. vol. xv.
[FY] Spectacle de la Nature, i. p. 61.
[FZ] Remains, ii. 62-5. It is a remarkable fact, as recorded from personal observation by Mr. Bell (British Reptiles), that the toad swallows the cuticle detached from its body during the moult which it undergoes.
[GA] Spectacle de la Nature, i. 119.
[GB] Introduction, ii. 449.
[GC] Hist. des Moeurs et de l’Instinct, vol. ii.
[GD] Entomologie, par R. A. E., p. 242. Paris, 1826.
[GE] Elements of the Philosophy of Plants, Eng. Trans., p. 285.
[GF] Flore Franç. Disc. Préliminaire.
[GG] Réaumur, vol. iii.
[GH] In order to prevent ambiguity, it is necessary to remark that the excrescences thus called must not be confounded with the true galls, which are occasionally found in the gall-bladder.
[GI] Réaumur, Mém. iv. 505.
[GJ] Mém. iv. 538.
[GK]
Est lucos Silari circa ilicibusque virentem
Plurimus Alburnum volitans, cui nomen asilo
Romanum est, Oestrum Graii vertere vocantes,
Asper, acerba sonans; quo tota exterrita silvis
Diffugiunt armenta; furit mugitibus æther
Concussus, sylvæque et sicci ripa Tanagri.
_Georg._ lib. iii. 146.
[GL] Linnæus, Lachesis Lapponica, July 19th.
[GM] Linnæus, Flora Lapponica, p. 378, ed. Lond. 1792.
[GN] Kirby and Spence, Introd. i. 151.
[GO] Kirby and Spence, p. 149.
[GP] These circumstances afford, we think, a complete answer to the query of Kirby and Spence—“There can be little doubt (or else what is the use of such an apparatus?) that it bores a hole in the skin.”—Introd. i. 162, 2nd edit.
[GQ] Linn. Trans. iii. 305.
[GR] Linn. Trans. iii. 305.
[GS] Mém. iv. 540.
[GT] Réaumur, iv. 549.
[GU] Bruce’s Travels, i. 5, and v. 191.