The river in several places expands to the width of many miles, embosoming numerous islands, some of which are broad and considerably extensive, and all of them covered with a growth of cotton-wood and willows. These are the only woodlands that make their appearance along the river, and in travelling westward these become less numerous and extensive, till at length they entirely disappear. Copses and skirts of woodland again present themselves in the neighbourhood of the mountains, but they are of small magnitude, and the trees they furnish are of a dwarfish growth. For a distance of nearly two hundred miles, commencing at the confluence of the North and South forks, and extending westwardly towards the mountains, the country is almost entirely destitute of woodland, scarcely a tree, bush, or even a shrub, making its appearance.
{228} The Platte is seldom navigable, except for skin canoes, requiring but a moderate depth of water, and for these only when a freshet prevails in the river. No attempts have ever been made to ascend the river in canoes for any great distance; the prevalence of shoals, and the rapidity of the current, discouraging such an undertaking. The bed of the Platte is seldom depressed more than six or eight feet below the surface of the bottoms, and in many places even less; and spreads to such a width, that the highest freshets pass off without inundating the bottoms, except in their lowest parts; the rise of the water, on such occasions, being no more than five or six feet.
In order to account in some measure for the diversity of soil observable in the vallies of most of our western rivers, it may not be improper in this place to assign one of the principal causes that operate in producing this effect. The alluvial deposits of which the river bottoms are formed, consist of particles of mud and sand, more or less minute. The coarser and more ponderous particles are of course soonest deposited, while the finer are transported by the current to a greater distance, and deposited near the mouths of the rivers. Thus it happens, that the bottoms situated nearest to the sources of the western rivers, are sandy, and contain but a small proportion of vegetable mould, while those nearer their mouths are generally furnished with a rich and fertile loam.
The Konzas, or Konzays, as it is pronounced by the Indians, is made up of two considerable streams, heading in the plains between the Platte and Arkansa rivers, called the Republican and Smoky-hill forks; tributary to the former of these, are the Solomon's and Salim forks, of less magnitude, rising also in the same plains. The Konzas is navigable only in high freshets for boats of burden, and on such occasions not more than one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles, the navigation being obstructed by shoals. {229} The character of this river and its several branches is similar to that of the Platte and its tributaries. Woodlands are seldom to be met with, except in narrow skirts and small copses along the watercourses. Much of the country situated upon its forks is said to be possessed of a good soil, but is rendered uninhabitable for want of timber and water. The bottoms are possessed of a light sandy soil, and the uplands are in many places characterized by aridity and barrenness. The surface for the most part is rolling, but in some instances inclines to hilly.
That portion of the Arkansa included within the section under consideration has a bed or channel varying in width from four hundred yards to more than a mile, exclusively of islands. In the neighbourhood of the mountains, its width does not exceed fifty or sixty yards, gradually growing wider in its progress downward. Its valley, for a distance of more than one hundred miles from the place where it issues from the mountains, contains a considerable timber-growth, principally of cotton-wood, in skirts bordering upon the river, which occasionally embosoms islands clad in the same kind of growth. Every appearance of timber, however, is lost on a further progress eastward, and nothing is presented to variegate or adorn the prospect inland, but a broad expanse of waving prairies.
Proceeding eastward along the river, its valley gradually widens, and the bluffs or banks by which it is bounded become less elevated and abrupt. The bottoms rise but a few feet above the water-level of the river, but the freshets, having a broad bed like that of the Platte to expand upon, seldom rise so high as to inundate the bottoms. This part of the Arkansa, as before hinted, cannot be considered as navigable, except for boats of light burden during the prevalence of a freshet. In a very low stage, the river is said to disappear in many places, the {230} whole of its water passing off through the immense body of sand of which its bed is composed.
The Arkansa, having a direction nearly east and west, has no great variety of climate to traverse in its course from the mountains to the Mississippi; consequently there is no succession of thaws taking place upon the river, calculated to maintain a freshet for any considerable length of time. The freshets are occasioned by a simultaneous melting of the snow throughout the whole extent of the river, and by showers of rain, which, falling upon a rolling surface, is quickly drained off, and causes sudden, but seldom excessive rises in the river. I have witnessed, in the Arkansa, no less than three considerable rises and falls of the water in the course of two weeks.
The most considerable streams tributary to this part of the Arkansa are the Negracka or Red Fork, and the Newsewketongu, or Grand Saline, on the south, and the Little Arkansa and Stinking Fork on the north side. The Negracka rises within fifty or sixty miles of the mountains, and after meandering eastwardly between four and five hundred miles, unites with the Arkansa at the distance of about nine hundred miles from the mouth of the latter. The Newsewketongu has its source in the plains between the Arkansa and Canadian rivers, and unites with the former about one hundred and fifty miles below the Negracka. The head waters of the Little Arkansa interlock with those of the Smoky-hill Fork of the Konzas, and are discharged into the Arkansa, about fifteen hundred miles above its mouth. The Stinking Fork rises amongst the head-waters of the Neosho, and enters the Arkansa about eight hundred miles from its mouth. Besides these, there are many other streams of smaller size entering on both sides of the river.
The Canadian rises at the base of the Rocky Mountains, and after a meandering course of about {231} one thousand miles, enters the Arkansa at the distance of about five hundred and fifty miles from the mouth of the latter. This river has generally been represented, upon the maps of the country, as having a north-easterly course; whereas its source is nearly in the same latitude as its confluence with the Arkansa, consequently its general course is nearly east. In its course, it forms an extensive curve to the southward, leaving a broad space between it and the Arkansa, in which several streams, many hundred miles in length, tributary to both of these rivers, have their origin and course.
This river has a broad valley, bounded by bluffs from two to five hundred feet high, faced with rocky precipices near its source, and presenting abrupt declivities, intersected by numerous ravines lower down. It has a spacious bed, depressed but a few feet below the bottoms, and exhibiting one continued stratum of sand through the greater part of its length. It is the channel through which the water of a vast extent of country is carried off, yet, during most of the summer season, it is entirely destitute of running water throughout a large proportion of its extent, a circumstance in proof of the aridity of region drained by it. Fifty miles above its mouth, it receives at least two-thirds of its water from its principal tributary, denominated the North Fork. This fork rises between the Arkansa and Canadian, and has a meandering course of about seven hundred miles. Six miles above the fork just mentioned, another tributary enters the Canadian called the South Fork, about half as large as the other. Notwithstanding the supplies afforded by these two tributaries, the Canadian has not a sufficiency of water in summer to render it navigable even to their mouths. At the distance of twenty miles above its mouth, a chain of rocks (slaty sandstone) extends across the bed of the river, but occasions no considerable fall. A little above the entrance of the South Fork, is another of the same {232} description, forming rapids of moderate descent, not more than four hundred yards in length. With these exceptions, the bed of the river presents no rocky formations in place, for more than four hundred miles from its confluence with the Arkansa. About three hundred and fifty miles from that point, beds of gypsum, or plaster of Paris, begin to make their appearance in the bluffs fronting upon the river, and upon the declivities of the highland knobs. A great abundance of this article is to be met with, not only upon the Canadian, but also upon the upper part of the Arkansa. The hills, in which it is imbedded, are composed of ferruginous clay and fine sand of a deep red complexion. Hence the Arkansa derives the colouring matter that gives to its waters their reddish hue.
The bottoms of the Canadian, in the neighbourhood of its mouth, are possessed of a soil exceedingly prolific; but, like those of the other rivers of this region, the more remote their situation from the mouth of the river, the more sandy and sterile is their appearance. Its valley is plentifully supplied with timber of an excellent quality, for a distance of about two hundred miles on the lower part of the river; and the high lands, for nearly the same distance, are agreeably diversified with prairies and woodlands. This portion of the river is situated eastward of the assumed meridian, and the country upon it has already been partially described in a former part of this report.
The woodland growth, upon the lower part of the Canadian, consists of cotton-wood, sycamore, white, blue, and black ash, swamp cedar, red elm, coffee tree, yellow wood, sugar tree, box elder, white and black walnut, wild cherry, mulberry, &c. in the river valley; and hickory, white and post oak, black jack, black oak, &c. upon the adjacent uplands. On a progress westward, the most valuable of the timber trees above enumerated disappear, till at length occasional groves of cotton-wood, mingled with mulberry, {233} red elm, and stunted shrubbery of various kinds, constitute the only woodlands of the country. On this occasion, it may be observed, that the cane or reed, the pea-vine, pawpaw, spice-wood, hop-vine, and several other varieties of shrubs and vines common only to rich soils, are no where to be found within this section, or westward of the proposed meridian.
The country of the Canadian above that last considered, or that portion of it west of the assumed meridian, appears to be possessed of a soil somewhat richer than the more northerly parts of the section, but exhibits no indications of extraordinary fecundity in any part of it. Proceeding westward, a very gradual change is observable in the apparent fertility of the soil, the surface becoming more sandy and sterile, and the vegetation less vigorous and luxuriant. The bottoms appear to be composed, in many places, almost exclusively of loose sand, exhibiting but few signs of vegetation. Knobs and drifts of sand, driven from the bed of the river by the violence of the wind, are piled in profusion along the margin of the river throughout the greater part of its length. It is remarkable, that these drifts are in many instances covered with grape vines of a scrubby appearance, bearing fruit in the greatest abundance and perfection. The vines grow to various heights, from eighteen inches to four feet, unaccompanied, in some instances, by any other vegetable, and bear a grape of a dark purple or black colour, of a delicious flavour, and of the size of a large pea or common gooseberry.
The waters of this section, almost in every part of it, appear to hold in solution a greater or less proportion of common salt and sulphate of magnesia, which, in many instances, render them too brackish or bitter for use. Saline and nitrous efflorescences frequently occur upon the surface, in various parts of the country, and incrustations of salt, of considerable {234} thickness, are to be found in some few places south of the Arkansa river. As to the existence of rock salt in a mineral state some doubts are to be entertained, if the decision is to rest upon the character of the specimens exhibited as proofs of the fact. The several examples of this formation that we have witnessed, are evidently crystalline salt deposited by a regular process of evaporation and crystallization, and formed into concrete masses or crusts upon the surface of the ground.
Indications of coal are occasionally to be seen, but this mineral does not probably occur in large quantities. The geological character of this section is not such as to encourage the search for valuable minerals. A deep crust of secondary sandstone, occasionally alternating with breccia, with here and there a superstratum of rocks of a primitive type, are the principal formations that present themselves.
Of the animals of this region, the buffaloe or bison ranks first in importance, inasmuch as it supplies multitudes of savages not only with the principal part of their necessary food, but also contributes to furnish them with warm clothing. The flesh of this animal is equal, if not superior, to beef, and affords not only a savoury but a wholesome diet. A large proportion of this section, commencing at the assumed meridian, and extending westward to within one hundred miles of the Rocky Mountains, constitutes a part only of their pasture ground, over which they roam in numbers to an incredible amount. Their range extends northwardly and southwardly of the section, as far as we have any particular account of the country. The animal next in importance is the wild horse, a descendant, no doubt, of the Spanish breed of horses, to which its size, form and variety of colours, show that it is nearly allied. In regard to their contour, symmetry, &c. they afford all the varieties common to that breed of horses. They are {235} considerably numerous in some parts of the country, but not abundant. They are generally collected in gangs, but are sometimes solitary.
Grizzly or white bears are frequently to be seen in the vicinity of the mountains. They are much larger than the common bear, endowed with great strength, and are said to be exceedingly ferocious. The black or common bears are numerous in some parts of the country, but none of these animals are found remote from woodlands, upon the products of which they in a great measure depend for their subsistence.
The common deer are to be met with in every part of this section, but are most numerous in the vicinity of woodlands. The black-tailed or mule deer is found only in the neighbourhood of the mountains; hilly and broken lands seem to afford them their favourite pasture ground. The elk is also an inhabitant of this section, but is not to be found remote from woodlands. The cabric wild goat, or, as it is more frequently called, the antelope, is common. They are numerous, and with the buffaloe are the common occupants of the plains, from which they retire only in quest of water.
Wolves are exceedingly numerous, particularly within the immediate range of the buffaloe. Of these there are many varieties, distinguishable by their shape, size and colour.
The marmot, commonly called the prairie dog, is more abundant throughout this section than any other quadruped. They live in villages scattered in every direction, and thickly inhabited; a single village in some instances occupying a tract of ground three or four miles in extent. Their habitations are burrows three or four inches in diameter, situated at the distance of fifteen or twenty paces asunder. Their habits and manners in other respects are peculiarly interesting. They subsist on vegetables; their {236} flesh is similar to that of the ground hog, and their hair equally as coarse.
The beaver, otter, mink, and muskrat, are numerous upon the rivers, creeks, and rivulets issuing from the mountains, and generally upon those whose valleys are supplied with woodland.
Badgers, raccoons, hares, polecats, porcupines, many varieties of squirrels, panthers, wild cats, lynxes and foxes of several species, are also inhabitants of this section. Besides these, the country affords a great variety and abundance of reptiles and insects, both venomous and harmless.
Of the feathered tribes, no very considerable variety is observable. The turtle-dove, the jay, the barn swallow, the quail (partridge of the Middle States), the owl, whip-poor-will, and lark, which seem more widely distributed over the territory of the United States than any other birds, are found here. Several varieties of the hawk, containing some new species, the bald and gray eagle, the buzzard, raven, crow, jackdaw, magpie, turkey, two or three varieties of the grouse, pheasant, pigeon, many varieties of the sparrow and fly-catcher, the whooping or sandhill crane, curlew, sandpiper, together with a variety of other land and water fowls, are more or less numerous in this region. It is remarkable that birds of various kinds common to the sea-coast, and seldom found far in the interior, pervade the valley of the Mississippi to a great distance from the gulf of Mexico, and frequent the regions adjacent to the Rocky Mountains.
In regard to this extensive section of country, I do not hesitate in giving the opinion, that it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture for their subsistence. Although tracts of fertile land considerably extensive are occasionally to be met with, yet the scarcity of wood and water, almost {237} uniformly prevalent, will prove an insuperable obstacle in the way of settling the country. This objection rests not only against the section immediately under consideration, but applies with equal propriety to a much larger portion of the country. Agreeably to the best intelligence that can be had, concerning the country both northward and southward of the section, and especially to the inferences deducible from the account given by Lewis and Clarke of the country situated between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains above the river Platte, the vast region commencing near the sources of the Sabine, Trinity, Brases, and Colorado, and extending northwardly to the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, by which the United States' territory is limited in that direction, is throughout of a similar character. The whole of this region seems peculiarly adapted as a range for buffaloes, wild goats, and other wild game; incalculable multitudes of which find ample pasturage and subsistence upon it.
This region, however, viewed as a frontier, may prove of infinite importance to the United States, inasmuch as it is calculated to serve as a barrier to prevent too great an extension of our population westward, and secure us against the machinations or incursions of an enemy that might otherwise be disposed to annoy us in that part of our frontier.
The Indians of the section last described, whose numbers are very limited compared with the extent of country they inhabit, will be considered in the sequel of this report.
Of the Rocky Mountains
This range of mountains has been distinguished by a variety of appellations, amongst which the following are the most common, viz. Rocky, Shining, Mexican, Chippewyan, Andes, &c. The general {238} course of the range is about N.N.W. or S.S.E. Its breadth varies from fifty to one hundred miles. They rise abruptly out of the plains, which lie extended at their base on the east side, towering into peaks of great height, which renders them visible at the distance of more than one hundred miles eastward from their base. They consist of ranges, knobs, and peaks, variously disposed, among which are interspersed many broad and fertile valleys. The more elevated parts of the mountains are covered with perpetual snows, which contribute to give them a luminous and at a great distance even a brilliant appearance, whence they have derived the name of Shining Mountains.
Between the Arkansa and Platte, on a small creek tributary to the former, is situated a high part of the mountains, denominated the "Highest Peak" on many maps of the country, and said to be more elevated than any other part within the distance of one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles. This peak, whose summit has been accounted inaccessible, was ascended by a detachment of the expedition conducted by Dr. James, from which circumstance it has been called James's Peak. Its elevation above the common level, ascertained by a trigonometrical measurement, is about eight thousand five hundred feet. But the correctness of the statement, that it is higher than any other parts of the mountains within the distance above mentioned, is questionable. Judging from the position of the snow near the summits of other peaks and ridges at no great distance from it, a much greater elevation is apparent.
The mountains are clad in a scattering growth of scrubby pines, oak, cedar, and furze, and exhibit a very rugged and broken aspect. The rocky formations embodied in them, contrary to the opinion generally received, are of a primitive character, consisting of granite, gneiss, quartz rocks, &c. It {239} should be remarked, however, that a deep crust of secondary rocks, the same as the stratifications of the plains before mentioned, appears to recline against the east side of the mountains, extending upward from their base many hundred feet.
At the base of James's Peak above designated, are two remarkable springs of water, considerably copious, and strongly impregnated with fixed air. At the place also where the Arkansa issues from the mountains, are several medicinal springs on the north side of the river, rising in a small area at the base of the mountain. These springs were discovered by Captain Bell, and, in consequence, I have taken the liberty to call them Bell's Springs. They are six in number, one of which is strongly impregnated with fixed air, another with sulphurated hydrogen, and the rest with salt and sulphur; the water of all being more or less chalybeate.
Of the Indians inhabiting the section of country last described
This country is exclusively inhabited by savages, no other beings of the human family having fixed their abode within it. They consist of the following tribes and nations, whose numbers, places of residence, and mode of life, will be subjects of consideration as far as our knowledge of them extends.
The Otoes, or as they are called in their own language, the Wahtooh-tah-tah, reside in a permanent village of dirt or earthen lodges, on the south bank of the river Platte, about fifty miles from its confluence with the Missouri, and thirty miles south-westwardly from the Council Bluff. The principal remnant of the old Missouries, who have become extinct as a nation, have their residence with the Otoes. In the course of the last winter, whilst these Indians were absent from their village on their winter-hunt, their town was partly burnt by the {240} Sauks, which misfortune induced them to take up a temporary abode upon Salt river, a few miles from their former residence. But it was generally supposed that they would return again, and rebuild their town. The name of their principal chief is Shongotongo, or Big Horse. Probable number of lodges 100, of persons 1400. The Otoes and Missouries are esteemed a brave people, and are friendly towards the Americans. They are at war with the Sauks, Foxes, Sioux, Osages, Ietans, and other Indians west of the Missouri. A small band of the Ioways resided for some time with these Indians, but not being able to harmonize with them, lately returned to their old village on the river De Moyen of the Mississippi. Their principal chief, usually called Hard Heart, being dissatisfied with the conduct of his tribe, remains with the Otoes.
The Omawhaw, or as it is commonly written the Maha nation, exultingly boast that they have never killed an American. On the contrary, they have ever been friendly, and still hold the Americans in the highest estimation. Under the influence of their present principal chief, Ongpatonga, or the Big Elk, they never go to war except in the pursuit of a predatory war-party, in consequence of which the traders have given them the reputation of being cowardly. But the history of this people shows that they have been as ambitious of martial renown, and have acquired as large a share of it, as any of their neighbours. They formerly resided in a village of dirt lodges upon Omawhaw creek, a small stream entering the Missouri about two hundred miles above the Council Bluff; but they have recently abandoned it, and are about building a town on Elk Horn river. Their number of souls is about 1500.
The Puncahs have their residence in a small village of dirt lodges, about one hundred and eighty miles above Omawhaw creek. This tribe have a common origin with the Omawhaws, and speak the same language. {241} Their principal chief is called Smoke Maker. Their number is about 200 souls.
The tribes above enumerated evidently sprung from the same common stock, the language of all being radically the same. They have a tradition that their fathers came from beyond the Lakes.
The Pawnees are a race of Indians distinct from the preceding, their language differing radically from that of the Indians alluded to. The Pawnees consist of three distinct bands, that have their residence at present on a branch of the river Platte called the Loup Fork, about sixty miles from the mouth of the latter, and between 100 and 115 miles westward from the Council Bluff. The three bands are distinguished by the appellation of the Grand, the Republican, and the Loup Pawnees. The two former acknowledge a common origin, but the latter deny having any natural affinity with them, though their habits, language, &c. indicate the same ancestry. They live in three villages, included within an extent of about seven miles on the north bank of the Loup Fork, all compactly built.
The village of the Grand Pawnees is situated immediately on the bank of the river, and contains about 180 earthen lodges, 900 families, or 3500 souls. The name of the principal chief of this village is Tarrarecawaho, or Long Hair.
The village of the Republican Pawnees is situated about three miles above that of the Grand Pawnees, contains about 50 lodges, 250 families, or 1000 souls. The name of their principal chief is Fool Robe, who is very much under the influence of Long Hair. This band separated many years since from the Grand Pawnees, and established themselves upon the Republican fork of Konzas river, where they were visited by Pike on his tour westward. They seem to be gradually amalgamating with the present stock, and their village wears a declining aspect.
The village of the Loup Pawnees, or Skeree, as they call themselves, is situated four miles above {242} that last mentioned, immediately on the bank of the river; it contains about 100 dirt lodges, 500 families, or 2000 souls, making an aggregate of 6500 souls belonging to the three villages. The name of their principal chief is the Knife Chief. A few years since the Loup Pawnees had a custom of annually sacrificing a human victim to the Great Star, but this was abolished by their present chief, aided by the noble daring of his gallant son. They appear unwilling to acknowledge their affinity with the other Pawnees; but their language being very nearly the same, proves them to be of the same origin.
Although these bands are independent of each other in all their domestic concerns, government, &c., yet in their military operations they generally unite, and warfare becomes a common cause with them. Their arms are principally bows and arrows, lances, war-clubs, and shields, with some few firearms. They are expert horsemen, but generally fight on foot. They are more numerous, and accounted more formidable in warfare, than any other combination of savages on the Missouri. Their confidence in their own strength gives them a disposition to domineer over their weaker neighbours. They are at war with the Osages, Konzas, Sioux, Ietans, Kaskaias, Kiaways, Shiennes, Crows, &c.
The several tribes above described cultivate maize or Indian corn, pumpkins, beans, watermelons, and squashes. They hunt the bison or buffaloe, elk, deer, beaver, otter; the skins of which they exchange with the traders for fusees, powder, and lead, kettles, knives, strouding, blankets, beads, vermilion, silver ornaments, and other trinkets. They prefer the Mackinaw guns, blankets, &c., and will give a higher price for them, knowing that they are greatly superior to those furnished by American traders.
The Konzas and Osages, both of which reside in the vicinity of the meridian assumed as the eastern boundary of this section, may here be admitted to a more particular consideration than that already {243} allowed them in this report. The Konzas Indians reside in a village of earthen lodges, situated on the north side of the river bearing their name, about one hundred miles from its mouth. Their village consists of about 130 lodges, and contains about 1500 souls. This tribe was formerly very troublesome to our traders, frequently robbing them of their goods, but since the establishment of the upper posts on the Missouri they have become very friendly. They are at war with most of the other tribes and nations herein enumerated, except the Osages and Otoes, with the last of whom they have lately made peace, through the agency of Major O'Fallon, Indian agent for the Missouri. Several Indians of the Missouri tribe reside with them.
The Osages are divided into three bands or tribes, called the Grand Osage, the Little Osage, and Clermont's band; the two former of which reside in permanent villages, situated on the head-waters of Osage river, and the last upon the Verdigrise, about sixty miles from its confluence with the Arkansa. According to Pike, whose estimate of their numbers is probably near the truth, the Grand Osage band amounts to 1695, the Little Osage to 824, and Clermont's to 1500 souls, making an aggregate of about 4000. These Indians are not accounted brave by those inhabiting the country to the north and east of them, but are the dread of those west and south of them. Although they have occasionally been chargeable with depredations committed against the whites, they have been provoked to the perpetration of them by aggressions or trespasses on the part of the latter, or else the depredations have been committed by malcontents of the nation, who will not be governed by the counsel of their chiefs. These Indians hold the people and government of the United States in the highest estimation, and have repeatedly signified their strong desire to be instructed by them in the arts of civilization. The United States have purchased from them large and valuable tracts of country {244} for mere trifles, which the Osages have been the more willing to relinquish, under the prospect and encouragement given them, that the Americans would become their neighbours and instructors. They are in a state of warfare with all the surrounding tribes and nations of Indians, except the Konzas. It is said, that they are about forming an alliance with the Sauks and Fox Indians of the Mississippi, and that the latter are preparing to remove to their country. They have recently driven the Pawnees of Red river from their place of residence, and compelled them to seek an abode upon the head waters either of the Brases or Colorado.
The Konzas and Osages are descendants from the same common origin with the Otoes, Missouries, Ioways, Omawhaws, and Puncahs, to which may be added the Quapaws, and several other tribes, not mentioned in this report. The languages of all of them are radically the same, but are now distinguished by a variety of dialects.
Of the Arrapahoes, Kaskaias, Kiaways, Ietans, and Shiennes
These nations have no permanent residences or villages, but roam, sometimes in society and sometimes separately, over the tract of country constituting the section last described. They hunt the bison principally, and migrate from place to place in the pursuit of the herds of that animal, upon the flesh of which they chiefly subsist. Being thus accustomed to a roving life, they neglect the cultivation of the soil, and are compelled to subsist almost exclusively upon animal food. They formerly carried on a limited trade with the Spaniards of Mexico, with whom they exchanged dressed bison-skins for blankets, wheat, flour, maize, &c.; but their supplies of these articles are now cut off by a war, which they at present are waging against that people. They also, at distant periods, held a kind of fair on a tributary of the {245} Platte, near the mountains (hence called Grand Camp creek), at which they obtained British merchandize from the Shiennes of Shienne river, who obtained the same at the Mandan village from the British traders that frequent that part of our territory. Last winter they traded a great number of horses and mules with a party of white men, who had ascended Red river, but whence the party came from could not be ascertained; it however appeared probable that they were citizens of the United States, or possibly freebooters from Barataria.
The Shiennes associated with these wandering tribes are a small band of seceders from the nation of the same name residing upon Shienne river. They are said to be daring and ferocious. They are however kept under restraint by the energy and firmness of their chief. The Bear Tooth, who is the principal chief of the Arrapahoes, and the head chief of all these nations, possesses great influence over the whole. His mandates, which are uniformly characterized by discretion and propriety, are regarded by his subjects as inviolable laws.
The Kaskaia and Kiaway languages are very difficult to acquire a knowledge of. Our interpreter, who had lived several years with them, could only make himself understood by the language of signs, with the aid of a very few words of the Crow language, which many of them appeared to understand. Indeed many of the individuals of these different nations seemed to be ignorant of each other's language; for when they met, they would communicate by means of signs, with now and then an oral interjection, and would thus maintain a conversation, apparently without the least difficulty or misapprehension.
These nations are at war with all the Missouri Indians, as far down as the Osages, who are also included amongst their enemies; and it was rumoured that hostilities had recently commenced between them and the Shiennes, upon the river of the same name. {246} Their implements of war consist of the bow and arrow, the lance, war-club, and shield. They usually fight on horseback, and as horsemen display great skill and activity. Their habitations are leather lodges, which serve them as tents on the march, and dwellings at the places of their encampment.
Widely diffused as these Indians are, and never embodied, it is impracticable even to conjecture their numbers with any degree of probable accuracy. They rove not only throughout the section above specified, but extensively within the range of the Rocky Mountains.
The foregoing remarks concerning the Indians of this part of the country have been made for the most part agreeably to the suggestions of Mr. Say, whose attention was particularly directed to researches of this nature. But having been robbed of his notes upon the customs, manners, traditions, &c. of the western Indians, by the men who deserted from Captain Bell's party, he could give no farther account of them than what his recollection could supply. Of the Konzas, Otoes, Pawnees, and other Indians near the Council Bluff, his notes are considerably extensive; but the vessel on board of which they, with other articles, were shipped from New Orleans, having been obstructed in her passage up the Delaware by ice, we have not yet received them.
Observations embracing several traits of character common to the Indians of the western country
An accurate and extensive knowledge of the numerous tribes and nations of Indians living within the United States' territory can only be attained by a long residence with them. They are seldom communicative, except upon subjects intimately connected with their personal experience or present interests and welfare. In regard to matters of an abstract or metaphysical nature their ideas {247} appear to be very limited; at any rate very little is known of their sentiments upon subjects of this kind, owing, in a great measure, to the inability of the persons usually employed as interpreters to converse intelligently concerning them. The delicate trains of thought and reflection attributed to them by writers who have attempted to enlarge our acquaintance with the Indian character, usually have their origin in the ingenuity of the writers themselves. The exploits of their war-parties, and particularly those of individuals, are often recounted, but are seldom transmitted to succeeding generations, unless they are characterized by some signal advantage to the tribe or nation to which the party or individual belongs. Hence their history is very defective, affording but few incidents, and characterized by no regular series of events. In regard to the number of persons, and strength of the several tribes and nations, also the ages of individuals, no precise statements can be made; all the information given under these heads is almost without exception conjectural. In relation to subjects of this kind the Indians are either ignorant or wilfully silent; and deem it an impertinent curiosity that prompts a stranger to the investigation of them.
Notwithstanding these obstacles in the way of acquiring authentic and credible information concerning the savages, yet there are certain traits in their general character that are observable on a partial acquaintance with a variety of tribes and nations, and upon these the following remarks are grounded.
They are, almost without exception, addicted to habits of extreme indolence; self-preservation, self-defence, and recreation being their usual incitements to action. The laborious occupations of the men consist almost exclusively in hunting, warfare, and tending their horses. Their amusements are principally horse-racing, gambling, and sports of various kinds. The cultivation of corn and other vegetables, {248} the gathering of fuel, cooking, and all other kinds of domestic drudgery, is the business of the women, the men deeming it degrading to their dignity to be occupied in employments of this kind. Their religion consists in the observance of a variety of rites and ceremonies, which they practise with much zeal and ardour. Their devotional exercises consist in singing, dancing, and the performance of various mystical ceremonies, which they believe efficacious in healing the sick, frustrating the designs of their enemies, and in giving success to any enterprize in which they may be embarked.
Amongst all these tribes and nations secret associations or councils are common, the proceedings of which are held sacred, and not to be divulged, except when the interests of the people are thought to require a disclosure. To these councils, which they denominate medicine, or rather magic feasts, none are admitted but the principal men of the nation, or such as have signalized themselves by their exploits in battle, hunting, stealing horses, or in any of the pursuits accounted laudable by the Indians.
In these assemblies the policy of making war or peace, and the manner in which it is to be effected, also all matters involving the interests of the nation, are first discussed. Having thus been the subject of deliberation in solemn council (for the proceedings at these feasts are conducted with the greatest solemnity,) the decision, of whatever nature it may be, is published to the people at large by certain members of the council performing the office of criers. On such occasions, the criers not only proclaim the measures that have been recommended, but explain the reasons of them, and urge the people zealously to support them. It is also the business of the criers, who are generally men of known valour and approved habits, and are able to enforce their precepts by the examples they have set, to harangue the people of their village daily, and exhort them to such a course {249} of life as is deemed praiseworthy. On such occasions, which are usually selected in the stillness of the morning or evening, the crier marches through the village, uttering his exhortation in a loud voice, and endeavouring to inculcate correct principles and sentiments. The young men and children of the village are directed how to demean themselves, in order to become useful and enjoy the esteem of good men, and the favour of the good spirit. In this way they are incited to wage war or sue for peace; and to practise according to their ideas of morality and virtue; and may be swayed to almost any purpose that their elders, for such are their men of medicine (or as the term imports, magic wisdom), think proper to execute. They appear to have no laws, except such as grow out of habitual usages, or such as are sanctioned by common consent. The executive of their government seems to be vested in the chiefs and warriors; while the grand council of the nation is composed of the medicine council above mentioned, at which the principal chief presides. In all their acts of devotion, as also on all occasions where their confidence is to be won, or their friendship to be plighted, the smoking of tobacco seems to be invariably regarded as an inviolable token of sincerity. They believe in the existence of a Supreme Being, whom they denominate "Master of Life" or "Good Spirit," but of his attributes their ideas are vague and confused. They are generally in the habit of offering in sacrifice a portion of the game first taken on a hunting expedition, a part of the first products of the field, and often a small portion of the food provided for their refreshment. In smoking, they generally direct the first puff upward, and the second downward to the earth, or the first to the rising and the second to the setting sun; after which they inhale the smoke into their lungs, and puff it out through the nostrils for their own refreshment.
{250} They have some indistinct notions of the immortality of the soul, but appear to know no distinction of Heaven or Hell, Elysium or Tartarus, as the abode of departed spirits.
The arts of civilized life, instead of exciting their emulation, are generally viewed by the Indians as objects unworthy of their attention. This results, as a natural consequence, from their habits of indolence. They are aware that much labour is requisite in the prosecution of them, and being accustomed from their infancy to look upon manual labour of every description as a drudgery that pertains exclusively to the female part of their community, they think it degrading to the character of men to be employed in them. Hunting, horsemanship, and warfare are the only avocations in which their ambition or sense of honour prompts them to engage.
Their reluctance to forgive an injury is proverbial. "Injuries are revenged by the injured; and blood for blood is always demanded, if the deceased has friends who dare to retaliate upon the destroyer." Instances have occurred where their revenge has become hereditary, and quarrels have been settled long after the parties immediately concerned have become extinct.
Much has been published in relation to the high antiquity of Indian tradition, of those particularly which relate to their origin and their religion. But from the examples afforded by the several nations of Indians resident upon the Mississippi and its waters, but little proof is to be had in favour of the position. It is not doubted that the immediate objects of their worship have been held in reverence by their predecessors for a long succession of ages; but in respect to any miraculous dispensations of providence, of which they have a traditional knowledge, their ideas are at best exceedingly vague and confused; and of occurrences recorded in sacred history they appear to be entirely ignorant. The knowledge they {251} have of their ancestry is also very limited; so much so, that they can seldom trace back their pedigree more than a few generations; and then know so little of the place whence their fathers came, that they can only express their ideas upon the subject, in general terms, stating, that they came "from beyond the lakes,"—"from the rising or setting sun"—"from the north or south," &c. In some instances, where their term of residence in a place has evidently been of limited duration, they have either lost or conceal their knowledge of the country whence their ancestors came, and assert that the Master of Life created and planted their fathers on the spot where they, their posterity, now live. They have no division of time, except by years, seasons, moons, and days. Particular periods are distinguished by the growth and changes of vegetables, the migrations, incubations, &c. of birds and other animals.
Their language is of two kinds, viz. verbal and signal, or the language of signs. The former presents a few varieties, marked by radical differences, and a multiplicity of dialects peculiar to individual tribes or nations descended from the same original. The latter is a language common to most, if not all, of the western Indians, the motions or signs used to express ideas being, with some slight variations, the same amongst all of them. Nearly allied to the language of signs is a species of written language which they make use of, consisting of a few symbolical representations, and of course very limited and defective. The figures they make use of have but a faint resemblance to the object described, and are rudely imprinted upon trees, cliffs, &c. by means of paints, charcoal, and sometimes by carving with a knife or other edged tool, and are significant of some movement, achievements, or design of the Indians. A variety of figures of this description are to be seen upon the cliffs, rocks, and trees in places held sacred and frequently resorted to by the Indians, {252} but of their import little is known. Many of these symbols are made by the magicians, or men of medicine, and are probably of sacred or devotional import.
Much intrigue, cunning, and artifice are blended with the policy of the Indians, and judging from their usual practice, it is a favourite and well approved maxim with them, that "the end sanctifies the means." In an interview with strangers it appears to be their first object to ascertain their motives and the objects of their visits; and after regarding them for some time without a show of curiosity, a variety of interrogatories are proposed, in order to satisfy themselves upon these points. This they appear to do with the view also of scrutinizing into the character and disposition of their guests. In the course of the conversation they become more and more familiar and impertinent, till at length their familiarity is succeeded by contempt and insult. Thus, from the coldest reserve, they are in a short time impelled by curiosity and a propensity to abuse, where they are not in some measure compelled to respect, to the commission of outrages, even without the slightest provocation. This kind of treatment, however, is easily obviated at the commencement of an interview, by resisting every advance made by the Indians towards familiarity, and by uniformly opposing firmness and reserve to the liberties they are disposed to take.
These attributes of the Indian character manifest themselves not only in the well-known stratagems they adopt in warfare, but in the management of their domestic concerns, in which rivalships of one kind or other are created; parties are formed and pretenders arise, claiming privileges that have been withheld from them, and placing themselves at the head of factions, occasionally withdraw from the mother tribe. Thus new tribes are formed and distributed in various directions over the country, with nothing to {253} mark their genealogy, but the resemblance of their language to that of the parent stock, or of other Indians that sprung from the same origin.
The chiefs, or governors of tribes, have their rank and title by inheritance; yet in order to maintain them, and secure themselves in their pre-eminence, they are under the necessity of winning over to their interests the principal warriors and most influential men of their tribe, whose countenance and support are often essential to their continuance in authority. In conciliating the friendship of these, the chief is often compelled to admit them to participate in the authority with which he is invested, and to bestow upon them any effects of which he may be possessed. Thus it often happens that the chiefs are amongst the poorest of the Indians, having parted with their horses, clothes, trinkets, &c. to ensure the farther patronage of their adherents, or to purchase the friendship of those that are disaffected.
The situation of principal chief is very frequently usurped during the minority of the rightful successor, or wrested from an imbecile incumbent by some ambitious chief or warrior. In this case the ascendancy obtained over the nation by the usurper is gradual, and depends upon the resources of his own mind, aided by his reputation for generosity and valour.
The condition of the savages is a state of constant alarm and apprehension. Their security from their enemies, and their means of subsistence, are precarious and uncertain, the former requiring the utmost vigilance to prevent its infraction, and the latter being attended with no regular supplies of the necessaries of life. In times of the most profound peace, whether at their villages or on a hunting expedition, they are continually on the alert lest they should be surprised by their enemies. By day scouts are constantly kept patrolling for a considerable distance around them, and by night sentinels are posted to give notice of the approach of strangers.
{254} When they engage in a hunt, they generally abandon their villages, old men, women, and children joining in the enterprize, through fear of being left at home without the strength of their nation to protect them. On their march they endeavour to make as great a display of force as practicable, in order to intimidate any of their enemies that may be lurking to spy out their condition. With this view they are careful to pitch their lodges or tents at the places of their encampment in such a manner, and in such numbers, as to give the impression, at a distance, that they are numerous and formidable. We have witnessed a hunting party on their march, consisting of not more than one hundred persons, including men, women, and children, yet at their encampment more than thirty lodges were pitched, each of which would accommodate at least twelve adult persons.
It is an opinion generally credited, that the Indians are possessed of strong natural appetites for ardent spirits, but there is at least room to doubt of its being well-founded. That the appetites for them are often strong and ungovernable is very certain; but they may be considered as factitious rather than natural, having been created by occasional indulgencies in the use of intoxicating liquors. Instances are not rare in which Indians have refused to accept liquor when offered them. After a long abstinence from food, any thing calculated to allay the cravings of the appetite is eagerly swallowed, and on such occasions nothing perhaps produces such an effect more speedily than spirituous liquors. Indians, while lounging about a trading establishment, are often destitute of food for a considerable time, and can obtain no other kind of refreshment from the trader but liquor, which is bestowed partly in exchange for commodities they may have to dispose of, and partly by way of encouraging them to return to him with the products of their next hunt. A small draught, on such occasions, produces intoxication, and the sudden {255} transition from a state of gnawing hunger to that of unconcerned inebriety cannot fail to make them passionately fond of a beverage that can thus change their condition so much to their immediate satisfaction. In their use of ardent spirits, the Indians appear to be less captivated with their taste than with their exhilarating effects. The quality of liquor is not a subject of discrimination with them; provided it has sufficient strength to inebriate they are satisfied, let its character in other respects be what it may. Having contracted the habit of intoxication, they seldom appear thankful for liquor, unless it has been bestowed in such quantities as are sufficient to produce that effect.
In the indulgence of their appetites they display but few or no traits of epicurism, choosing those kinds of food that are most nutritive, without regarding their taste or flavour. In the preservation of their food, no pains are taken to render it savoury or palatable; their object is solely to reduce it to a state of security against putrefaction. They make no use of spices or other aromatics, either in preserving or cooking their food. Even salt is not considered as an essential, and is seldom used as an appendage in their cookery. This article is only prized by them on account of its usefulness for their horses. In regard to their choice of food, however, and manner of cooking it, the small variety within their reach, and the impracticability of obtaining condiments of different kinds, perhaps renders them less particular in these respects, than they would be under different circumstances. It cannot be supposed that they are entirely insensible to dainties of every description; on the contrary, they appear remarkably fond of sugar and saccharine fruits.
They appear to have a natural propensity for the fumes of tobacco, which they invariably inhale into the lungs, and eject through the nostrils. They make no use of this article except in smoking, which is an {256} indulgence of which they are exceedingly reluctant to be deprived. When they cannot obtain tobacco, they use as a substitute the dried leaves of the sumac, the inner bark of the red willow dried, and the leaves and bark of a few other shrubs, the fumes of which are less stimulating, but equally as palatable as those of tobacco.
The Indians under consideration know not the use or value of the precious metals, except as trinkets or ornaments for their dress. They use wampum, and in some few instances shells of a small size and of a particular character, as a substitute for money. But in general furs, peltries, horses, and various articles of dress at standing or fixed rates of barter, are the immediate objects, both of internal and external trade. They do not hold their property in common, but each individual enjoys the fruit of his own toil and industry. They are accounted more or less wealthy according to the number of horses they are possessed of, and the style in which they are able to dress.
Polygamy is common amongst them, every man being allowed to have as many wives as he can maintain. Marriages are binding upon the parties only as long as they think proper to live together, and are often contracted for a limited term particularly specified. Females, during the periods of their catamenia, are excluded from society, and compelled even to sleep apart from their families, in small tents or lodges constructed for their use.
Dancing is common amongst them, both as a devotional exercise and an amusement. Their gestures on both occasions are similar, except that on the former they are accompanied by solemnity, and on the latter by cheerfulness; and are characterized by extraordinary uncouthness, rather than by gracefulness. No ribaldry, however, or tricks of buffoonery are practised on these occasions; on the contrary, their deportment is uniformly accordant with their {257} ideas of decorum. This exercise is invariably accompanied by singing, or a kind of chanting, in which the women, who are usually excluded from a participation in the former, perform their part. Their music consists in a succession of tones of equal intervals, accompanied by occasional elevations and depressions of the voice. The modulations with which it is variegated are by no means melodious; the voices of all the chanters move in unison, and all appear to utter the same aspirations. The same series of sounds appears to be common to the chanting of all the tribes.
The foregoing are among the most common features in the general character of the western Indians. Although in a region so extensive as that inhabited by them, and amongst so great a variety of tribes and nations, a considerable diversity of character is to be expected and admitted, yet it is believed that the traits above considered are common to the whole, as a race of barbarians. And although the shades of barbarism in which they are enveloped uniformly exclude the light of civilization, yet it is not to be presumed that they are equally dark and malignant in all cases.
OF THE MISSISSIPPI, MISSOURI, AND OHIO RIVERS
I trust it will not be deemed improper on this occasion, to offer a few remarks upon the character of these rivers, embracing more particularly the condition of their navigation.
The causes heretofore alleged as giving occasion to a diversity of soil within the valleys of the western rivers, have an effect also in giving character to their channels or beds. For example: the banks near the mouths of the rivers, being composed of a fine unctuous and adhesive alluvion, are less liable to crumble and wash away, and constitute a more permanent barrier to resist the force of the current, than those {258} higher up, that are composed of coarser materials. In consequence, the beds of the rivers are rendered narrower and deeper towards their mouths than at greater distances above them. This is more particularly the case with the Mississippi, Red, Arkansa, and some others, whose beds or channels gradually dilate, and become more shoal on ascending from their mouths. Thus it happens also, that the navigation of the Mississippi has fewer obstructions between Natches and its mouth than above this part of the river, having so great a depth of water, that mags, bars, &c. are sunk below the reach of any kind of water-craft employed in its navigation. From Natches upward to its confluence with the Missouri, the river presents impediments that become more and more numerous and difficult to pass. Still, however, the main channel, though intricate in many places, affords a sufficient depth of water in all stages for boats of five or six feet draft to ascend to the mouth of the Ohio. From this point to the Missouri, a distance of more than two hundred and twenty miles, the navigation is partially obstructed, during a very low stage of the water, by shoals, so that it is navigable only for boats of moderate burthen, requiring but about three feet of water. At the distance of about thirty miles above the mouth of the Ohio there are two rocky bars extending across the Mississippi, called the Big and Little Chains, which in the deepest channel across them afford no more than five or six feet of water in a low stage, and occasion a great rapidity of current. The Mississippi is usually at its lowest stage about the middle of August, the summer freshet of the Missouri having subsided previously to that time. It usually continues in this stage till it is swollen by the fall freshet of the Ohio, after which it subsides again, and remains low during the winter. The distance from New Orleans to the mouth of the Missouri is estimated at about twelve hundred miles; its current in the main channel of {259} the river is supposed to have an average velocity of three miles and three quarters per hour, in a moderate stage of the water; but when the river is high its velocity is considerably accelerated. Its water is turbid, being charged with a fine argillaceous mud, of a light colour, derived exclusively from the Missouri.
The Missouri is a very wild and turbulent river, possessing the ruder features of the Mississippi, but destitute of the gentleness characteristic of the latter in many places. The obstructions to the navigation of the Missouri, although they are of the same character with those of the Mississippi, are far more numerous and formidable than those of the latter. The channel is rendered exceedingly intricate by means of sand-bars and islands, and the navigation in many places is very hazardous, on account of the multiplicity of rafts, mags, sand-bars, &c. with which the channel is beset. No part of the river is exempt from these obstructions for any considerable distance, particularly when the water is low.
As this river in connexion with some of its principal tributaries traverses a considerable variety of climates, embracing more than ten degrees of latitude, a succession of spring freshets invariably takes place, and maintains an elevated stage of water from the breaking up of winter early in March, to the middle, and sometimes the last of July, when the summer freshet, yielded by the most northerly of its tributaries, takes place. During this period there is a sufficient depth to admit boats of almost any burthen; but during the residue of the year it can hardly be called navigable, except for boats drawing no more than twenty-five or thirty inches. The river is usually blocked up with ice during the winter season. The average velocity of its current, in a middling stage of water, may be estimated at four miles and one third. In time of a high freshet it moves with an {260} accelerated velocity, equal to five or five and half miles per hour.
The Ohio river, as before hinted, differs from those just described, in the rapidity of its current, the width of its bed, the character of its channel, and in several other respects; but as its general character is well known, a few remarks in relation to it will here suffice. The obstructions to its navigation are sand-bars, some few rafts and mags, and rapids, to which the intricacy of its channel in several places may be added. During a middle and high stage of water, the obstructions entirely disappear, and an accelerated current is the only difficulty to be encountered. The average velocity of the current, in a moderate stage of water, may be estimated at two miles and a half, and in a high stage, at three miles per hour. The season in which the navigation of the Ohio can be relied on, commences between the middle of February and first of March, and continues to the latter part of June. A fall freshet usually takes place in October or November, and the river is again navigable for a few weeks. During the rest of the year, boats of inconsiderable burthen meet with numerous obstructions in their progress from the lowness of the water, and in many places no channel can be found of sufficient depth to admit their passage. At the distance of about seventeen miles from its mouth is the first serious obstruction to its navigation, consisting of a limestone bar extending across the river, denominated the Big Chain. Three miles above is another of a similar description. The range of rocks, of which these appear to be a portion, seems to extend across the point of land situated between the Ohio and Mississippi, presenting itself again on the latter, at the Big and Little Chains before mentioned. The falls of the Ohio at Louisville are impassable for boats of burthen, except in the higher stages of the water. Le Turt's Falls, and {261} numerous other rapids, denominated ripples, are also impassable for boats of heavy burthen when the river is at its lowest stages. In this state the river is fordable in numberless places.
OF THE GREAT VALLEY OR BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI
This vast region, embracing more than twenty degrees of latitude and about thirty of longitude, although it has been explored in various directions by men of intelligence, is yet but imperfectly known; and probably no country in the world affords a more ample or interesting field for philosophic investigation. A thorough acquaintance with its geological character would in all probability lead to the most important conclusions in forming a correct theory of the earth, while a knowledge of its vegetable and mineral productions may be conducive to the comforts and enjoyments of a large portion of the human family. All we shall presume to offer under this copious head, will be a few general remarks relative to the position and conformation of the valley, grounded almost exclusively upon the hydrography of the country, so far as it has come under our observation.
The valley is bounded on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the east and south-east by the Alleghanies, and on the south by the Gulf of Mexico. To the northward, no precise limits can be assigned as its boundary. Although many have supposed that the waters of the Mississippi are separated from those running north-westwardly into the Pacific Ocean, and north-eastwardly into the Atlantic, by a mountainous range of country, yet, from the best information that can be had on the subject, the fact is quite otherwise. The old and almost forgotten statement of savage origin, viz. that "four of the largest rivers on the continent have their sources in the same plain," is entitled to far more {262} credit. The rivers alluded to are the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Saskashawin, and the Oregon or M'Kenzie's river. Agreeably to the accounts of Colonel Dixon and others who have traversed the country situated between the Missouri and the Assinaboin, a branch of Red river of Hudson's Bay, no elevated ridge is to be met with; but, on the contrary, tributaries to both these streams take their rise in the same champaign, and wind their way in various directions to their far distant estuaries. Judging from the maps that have been given of the country near the sources of the Mississippi, and of the region generally situated northwardly of the great lakes, as also from the accounts of various travellers who have penetrated many parts of those countries, the same remarks appear equally applicable to a large portion of the whole. The watercourses are represented as chains of lakes of various magnitudes, while lakes and stagnant pools are scattered in almost every direction, without ridges or perceptible declivities to show the direction in which they are drained. But we forbear to enlarge on this subject, and beg leave that reference may be had to Bouchette's map of the region of which we have just been treating, as a document containing ample illustrations of our opinion. Hence it will be inferred that the valley of the Mississippi is merely a portion of an immense region of valley or flat country, extending from the Gulf of Mexico north-eastwardly to the Atlantic, and north-westwardly to the Pacific Ocean.
Within the valley or region drained by the Mississippi, are situated no less than three distinct ranges of mountainous country, the localities of which we will attempt to point out. The first and most considerable is a range of mountains commencing within the Spanish province of Texas, and stretching in a north-eastward direction, till it is terminated by the high lands on the lower part of the Missouri river. To this range we have given the name of the Ozark {263} Mountains, an appellation by which the Arkansa river was formerly distinguished, as also the tribe of Indians, since denominated the Quapaws, inhabiting near that river. Its direction is nearly parallel to that of the Alleghanies. Its peaks and ridges are less elevated than those of the latter, and do not present the same regularity in their arrangement. The second is denominated the Black Hills, commencing on the South or Padouca fork of the river Platte, at the distance of about one hundred miles eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and stretching north-eastwardly towards the great northerly bend of the Missouri. Of this range very little is yet known; and the fact that there is such a range is partially substantiated by the concurrent testimony of the traders and hunters of the Missouri, with whom it is a noted landmark, but it is more fully corroborated by the hydrography of the country, as may be shown by the map.
The third is a range of hilly and broken country, commencing on the Wisconsan near the Portage, and extending northwardly to Lake Superior. To this range we have taken the liberty to give the name of the Wisconsan Hills. The Ocooch and Smokey Mountains before mentioned, are connected with this range. In its geological character, and more especially in its metallic productions, so far as our inquiry will enable us to decide, it appears nearly allied to the Ozark Mountains, and circumstances are not wanting to induce the opinion, that they were once the same continuous range. Dr. James is decidedly of opinion, that the metalliferous region of the Mississippi, which extends from Red river to Lake Superior in the direction of these two ranges, strongly indicates that a continuous range, as just hinted, once had an existence.
The Mississippi river may be regarded as occupying the lowest part of the valley, from its great estuary, the Gulf of Mexico, to its confluence with the Missouri and Illinois. Thence to Lake Michigan, {264} the immediate valley of the Illinois is to be viewed as the lowest part of the great valley under consideration. This conclusion necessarily results from an attentive consideration of the characters of the three rivers just mentioned. If the inclinations of the plains down which these rivers respectively flow, be in any degree proportionate to the velocities of their currents, the plain of the Illinois will be found to have far the least inclination, inasmuch as the velocity of its current is not more than one-fourth of that of either of the others. But in order to have a more distinct view of the matter, let us assume the parallel of latitude intersecting the Illinois at its head, or point of confluence of the Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers, and suppose a vertical section cut in the direction of the parallel. Such a section would intersect the Missouri at the distance of nearly seven hundred miles from its mouth, the Mississippi at about two hundred and sixty, and the Illinois at two hundred and fifty from the same point. Hence, allowing that the plains of each have the same inclination, the point of intersection on the Missouri would be at a greater elevation than that on the Mississippi, and that on the Illinois would be less elevated than either. But the difference of inclination in these plains is manifest, not only from the comparative velocities of the several streams alluded to, but from the circumstance, that the Illinois is destitute of any considerable rapids throughout its whole course, whereas the Mississippi, in addition to a current uniformly more rapid, is hurried down the De Moyen rapids, eleven miles in length; and the Missouri, without a perversion of terms, may be denominated a rapid throughout the distance above specified. By a similar course of reasoning it may also be made to appear, that the assumed point of intersection on the Illinois is less elevated than any other point in the same parallel of latitude between that river and Lake Erie, and even that it is somewhat lower than the surface of {265} the lake itself; for the aggregate descent, from the surface of Lake Michigan to the point under consideration, is evidently greater than from the surface of the same lake to that of Lake Erie; or, in other words, the descent of the Des Plaines, from Chicago to its confluence with the Kankakee, is greater by a few feet than that of the stream uniting Lakes Huron and Erie.
This view of the subject affords us a clue whereby to ascertain, with some degree of precision, the aggregate fall of the water, from the head of the Illinois, to the Gulf of Mexico. Agreeably to the surveys of the Great Canal of New York, the elevation of Lake Erie above tide-water is found to be 564 feet. Hence we may assume, in round numbers, 450 feet as the altitude of the head of the Illinois above the ocean.