The Project Gutenberg eBook of Jefferson and Hamilton
Title: Jefferson and Hamilton
The struggle for democracy in America
Author: Claude G. Bowers
Release date: November 25, 2023 [eBook #72222]
Language: English
Original publication: NYC: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1925
Credits: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
PREFACE
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS
INDEX
FOOTNOTES
JEFFERSON AND HAMILTON
JEFFERSON AND HAMILTON
The Struggle for Democracy
In America
BY
CLAUDE G. BOWERS
AUTHOR OF ‘THE PARTY BATTLES OF THE JACKSON PERIOD’
With Illustrations
BOSTON AND NEW YORK
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
The Riverside Press Cambridge
COPYRIGHT, 1925, BY CLAUDE G. BOWERS
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TENTH IMPRESSION, JANUARY, 1927
The Riverside Press
CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
PREFACE
All American history has since run along the lines marked out by the antagonism of Jefferson and Hamilton. Our history is sometimes charged with a lack of picturesqueness because it does not deal with the belted knight and the moated grange. But to one who considers the moral import of events, it is hard to see how anything can be more picturesque than the spectacle of these two giant antagonists contending for political measures which were so profoundly to affect the lives of millions of human beings yet unborn.
John Fiske
IT is the author’s purpose, in developing the stirring story of the Plutarchian struggle of Jefferson and Hamilton, to show that without belted knights the period was picturesque and dramatic. The extraordinary men who gave and took lusty blows did not, as some would have us think, confine themselves to calm academic discussions of elemental principles. The dignified steel engravings of the participants, with which we are familiar, give no impression of the disheveled figures seen by their contemporaries on the battle-field.
This battle-field was rich in movement and color. There was tragedy and pathos, much of comedy, something of the grotesque. Here we shall meet marching mobs, witness duels and fist-fights, turbulent mass meetings, public dinners in groves and taverns, hangings in effigy, and champions of democracy in the galleries of theaters, pelting the aristocrats in the pits, and coercing the orchestras into playing ‘La Marseillaise.’ It was in the midst of such scenes as these that Jefferson and Hamilton fought the battle of the fundamentals.
The struggle of these two giants surpasses in importance any other waged in America because it related to elemental differences that reach back into the ages, and will continue to divide mankind far into the future. The surrender at Yorktown ended one phase of the Revolution, but it was not complete until, after twelve years of nationhood, it was definitively determined that this should be not only a republic, but a democratic republic. That was the real issue between Jefferson and Hamilton.
The passions of the period still persist, and much of myth has been built up by idolaters and enemies about both leaders. It has seemed possible to the author to tell the story of their struggle with complete justice to both. The part each played in the creation of the Nation was essential. It has been the purpose to depict these two men and their associates as they really were in the heat of controversy, neither sparing their weaknesses nor exaggerating their virtues; to paint them as men of flesh and blood with passions, prejudices, and human limitations; to show them at close quarters wielding their weapons, and sometimes, in the heat of the fight, stooping to conquer; and to uncover their motives as they are clearly disclosed in the correspondence of themselves and friends. This has necessitated the demolishment of some fashionable myths, when myths have obstructed the view to truth.
The facts as here set forth throw a vivid light on the causes of the collapse of the Federalist Party, which, in the average of its leadership, was, perhaps, the most brilliant, and certainly the most attractive, in American history. Men of wonderful charm they were, but they were singularly lacking in an understanding of the spirit of their times and country. They fell, as we shall find, because they neither had nor sought contact with the average man, and sternly set themselves against the overwhelming current of democracy.
Even so, we shall find an explanation of their distrust of popular government in the illiteracy of the times, the exaggerated notions of freedom that prevailed, and the levity with which so many looked on financial obligations. It is easier to understand the Hamiltonian distrust of democracy than to comprehend the faith of Jefferson—a faith of tremendous significance in history. Quite as remarkable as his faith was the ability of Jefferson to mobilize, organize, and discipline the great individualistic mass of the towns, the remote farms along the Savannah, the almost unbroken wilds of the Western wilderness. With a few notable exceptions, he was forced to rely for assistance on lieutenants pathetically inferior to the group of brilliant men who sat on the Federalist board of strategy. He won because he was a host within himself, capable of coping single-handed against the combined geniuses of the opposition in the field of practical politics.
A liberal use has been made of the newspapers of the period; not only of the descriptions of actual events, but of the false rumors and stories that entered into the creation of the prejudices that always play their part in the affairs of men. In determining why a given result was forced by public opinion, it is no more necessary to know what the truth was than to know what the people who formed that opinion thought the truth to be.
Along with the struggles in Congress, the bickerings in streets, coffee-houses, and taverns, the actions of mobs and mass meetings, it has been thought important to show the part ‘society’ played in the drama—for it was a significant part. This was inevitable in a clear-cut fight between democracy and aristocracy. The elegant home of Mrs. Bingham was scarcely less identified with the Federalists than was that of Lady Holland with the English Whigs, or that of Madame Holland with the party of the Gironde. The pettings which the Otises and Harpers there received after the battles in the House were very real rewards to men of their temperament. The part played by men and women of fashion in the politics of the time will appear in the ostracism of Democrats from their charmed circle, when even Jefferson, snubbed, was driven for solace to the solitude of the library of the Philosophical Society.
Throughout the struggle we shall find the forces well defined—aristocracy against democracy, and sometimes we shall see it illustrated with theatrical exaggeration, as when the Philadelphia aristocrats of the army that marched against the Whiskey Boys, on prancing horses and in broadcloth uniforms, paraded their ragged, weather-beaten prisoners of the frontier through the fashionable streets for the delectation of the ladies at the windows.
It is impossible to treat of this period without giving to John Adams a place apart. He was in some respects a tragic figure, and, though ludicrously vain and often all but clownish in small things, we shall have occasion to admire and respect his independence and courageous subordination of his personal fortunes to the service of humanity and country in making the peace with France. If at times the mere recitation of his personal weaknesses seems like ill-natured ridicule, it should be borne in mind that this is necessary to the explanation of why a statesman and patriot, so able and deserving, was so unfortunate in his public career.
The purpose of the author is not to make out a case for or against democracy, but to show how it came to the Republic, sometimes blundering and making a fool of itself on the way; to re-create, if possible, an heroic, picturesque, and lusty age; to make the men of the steel engravings flesh and blood; to stage the drama of a day when real giants trod the boards.
CONTENTS
| I. Days of Comedy | 1 |
| A depressing dawn—Pessimism of Ames and Madison—Petty jealousies and ambitions—Federal Hall—Caliber of Congress—Adams’s triumphant entry—His elation—Form and titles—‘Majesty’ or ‘Excellency’?—Adams scorns ‘President’—‘What shall I be?’—Maclay’s amusement—Ellsworth puzzled—‘How shall I behave?’—Carroll’s disgust—Debate on titles—Maclay’s irreverence—Fenno’s plea for titles—Washington’s arrival and reception—Scene at the inauguration—The inaugural ball—New York in 1789—Streets, lights, sanitation—Homes of celebrities—Auction block and gallows—Funeral bells—Tea-gardens—Taverns—Theater—Washington at the play—Maclay shocked—The wax-works—Social climbers—Cost of living—Luxury of society—Its Tory tone—Ball at the French Minister’s—The Court on Cherry Street—Snobbery and pretense—The Hamiltons entertain—The dinners of the Pennsylvanians—Robert Morris’s stories—The Wall Street promenade—The House of Gossip—Richmond Hill—Washington’s dinners—Madison seeks revenue—Trickery of the merchants—Enter the ‘moneyed class’—Power of removal—Washington and the Senate—Hamilton’s appointment. | |
| II. Hamilton: A Portrait | 22 |
| Appearance—Elegance—Mystery of origin—Precocity—In Santa Cruz—Early ambition—At King’s College—Literary brilliancy—His eloquence—Was he a military genius?—His aristocracy—Love of luxury—Government by ‘gentlemen’—Respect for wealth—Contempt for democracy—Preference for monarchy—His plan for a Constitution—Distrust of the one adopted—Never reconciled—Work for its adoption—His genius analyzed—Methods of work—Fighting qualities—Moral courage—Personal integrity—Analysis of his strength and weakness—As a party leader—Lovable traits—His conviviality—Fondness for women—His home life—Attitude toward religion—Toward Washington. | |
| III. Hamilton in the Saddle | 43 |
| Confidence in Hamilton in commercial circles—Report on Public Credit—Reason not personally presented—Scene when read—Reactions of a radical—Enthusiasm in commercial quarters—The discords—Hate of speculators—‘In the interest of the rich’—Plan to bind moneyed class—Activity of speculators—Public men involved—Rumors of Robert Morris—Fast-sailing vessels—The gambling mania—Fenno defends speculators—The debate on Funding—Gallery scenes—Jackson’s attack—Hamilton turns lobbyist—Organizes his forces—Newspaper attacks—Portrait of Madison—He proposes discrimination—Consternation—Gloom at the Knox dinner—Hamiltonians attack—The debate—Sedgwick—Smith—Ames—The gallery—Madison replies—Maclay’s plan—An old roué—Madison’s snub—Discrimination voted down—Abuse of Madison—Reaction in the streets—Assumption—A caucus of Hamiltonians—Robert Morris’s interest—Opposition appears—Revolt of Southerners—The cause—Annihilation of States—Wolcott reveals Hamilton’s motives—The debate—Hamiltonians ‘piped to quarters’—Fear of vote—Rumors of Vining—Activity of the lobby—Lame and sick carried to House—Morris approaches Maclay—Alarm of Hamiltonians—Scenes in the Senate—Assumption voted down—Distress of Sedgwick, Wadsworth, Clymer, Fitzsimons—Scenes in coffee-houses—Hamiltonian Senate on a strike—Threats of disunion—Press comments—‘Bastard of Eastern speculators’—Jefferson reaches New York—Hamilton tries bargaining—Early morning walk on the Battery—Hamilton and Jefferson barter—Dinner at Jefferson’s—Madison agrees—Assumption wins. | |
| IV. Premonitions of Battle | 69 |
| Hamilton at high tide—Idol of business—Masterful manner in Cabinet—New fortunes and class feeling—Hamilton’s excise—Welcomes test of strength—Distillers aroused—Pennsylvania protests—Neutrality of Jefferson and Madison—Street debates—House debate—Denunciations of Jackson—Madison’s embarrassment—Liquor and morals—Giles approves—Revenue agents in elections—Hamilton takes personal charge in Senate—Meets with committee—Maclay’s rebuff—‘Hamilton fails in nothing’—Bloodshed predicted—The National Bank—Hamilton’s powerful following—Maclay notes drift of moneyed men—Debate in House—Madison attacks monopoly and implied powers—Ames defends—Sectional significance of vote—Fight in the Cabinet—Madison consulted by Washington—Asked to reduce views to writing—Fear of veto—Ames explains Washington’s hesitation—Ugly talk in New York—Hamilton and Jefferson break—The battle of the press—Hamilton man of the hour—Given reception in New York—Jefferson and Madison on a journey—Their intimacy—Their association in the public mind—Significance of their journey—Pamphlet duel of Burke and Paine—‘Rights of Man’ and Adams’s ‘Discourses of Davilla’—Jefferson’s ‘preface’ to Paine’s pamphlet—Reference to Adams—British Agent shocked—Also ‘Society’—Press joins the fray—Burke versus Paine in country towns—Adams disgusted with Paine—Enraged by Jefferson—J. Q. Adams attacks Jefferson and Paine—Defends English institutions—The war in the press—Turmoil pleases Jefferson—Embarrassed by the ‘preface’—Explains to Adams—Friends of democracy aroused—Scandal of ‘scrippomony’—Swindlers’ harvest—Frenzy of speculation—Press warns—Political phase—Scandal in choice of Bank directors—Hamilton’s brilliant support. | |
| V. Thomas Jefferson: A Portrait | 92 |
| Appearance—A woman’s impressions—His cold first look—Charm of manner—Maclay’s impressions—His conversation—His frontier training—Westerner with Eastern polish—Bred in democratic community—College influences—Fights for democracy in Virginia—Associations in Paris—Life there—Interest in peasants’ plight—Sympathy with dawning of French Revolution—Chats with Gouverneur Morris—Consulted by leaders of Revolution—His plan to save the monarchy—His humanity—Toward Hessian prisoners—Against death penalty for minor offences—Against degrading prisoners—Relations with servants—With slaves—Hostility to slavery—Attitude toward religion—Toward the Constitution—Methods as party leader—His tact—Persuasions of dinner table—Dislike of quarrels and separations—Self-control—Justly estimates opponent’s strength—Relations with Adams—His cunning—The art of mining—Practical political methods—Serenity in storms—The artistic phase—Music—Architecture—The scientific phase—Interest in natural history—Astronomy—Inventions—Passion for agriculture—Life at Monticello. | |
| VI. The Social Background | 116 |
| Complaints of Philadelphia prices and manners—The physical city—Streets and gardens—Halls of Congress—Offices of Jefferson, Hamilton, and Washington—Life in the taverns—In boarding-houses—Drinking-places—Arrogance of the masses—Their social life—Public gardens—Streets by night—Shops and shopping—Economic status of workers—The aristocracy—Vanity of wealth—‘Elegance of dress’—Entertaining—Heavy drinking—Risqués conversations—Burr’s wine—A dinner at Clymer’s—Hamilton and Mrs. Church—Portrait of Mrs. Bingham—The Bingham mansion—Mrs. Bingham’s hectic life—Monroe’s social blunder—Judge Chase’s boorishness—A reception at Mrs. Bingham’s—The Morrises—Mrs. Walter Stewart—Mrs. Samuel Powell—Mrs. Knox—Mrs. Hamilton—Mrs. Wolcott—Mary Ann Wolcott—Pierce Butler—Mrs. William Jackson—Foreign visitors—A scene at the British Legation—Country places—The hunt—Dancing Assembly—The theater—Washington at the play—The players—The circus—Home of Jefferson. | |
| VII. Jefferson Mobilizes | 140 |
| Hamilton’s advantage in organization—Jefferson’s raw material—His problem—The scattered masses—The disfranchised—Jefferson plans amalgamation of local democratic groups—Busy with his pen—Hancock and Sam Adams—Charles Jarvis—Ben Austin—Abraham Bishop—Politics in Connecticut—Gideon Granger—Ephraim Kirby—John Langdon—Matthew Lyon—George Clinton—The Livingstons—Aaron Burr—Jefferson approaches Burr—Tammany—Jeffersonian leaders in Pennsylvania—John Francis Mercer—The Virginia machine—Willie Jones of Halifax—Nathaniel Macon—Timothy Bloodworth—James Jackson of Georgia—Charles Pinckney—Jefferson’s iron discipline—He works on the masses—Aristocrats shocked at his associations—Uses the press—John Fenno—His relations with Federalist leaders—Launching of Freneau’s paper—Its national appeal—Portrait of Freneau. | |
| VIII. The Gage of Battle | 161 |
| Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures—Its reception—Hamilton’s plan for factories at Passaic Falls—Appears before New Jersey Legislature for charter—Visits site to select locations—Pamphlet attacks on his Passaic project—Admirers subscribe for Trumbull portrait of him—He watches Freneau’s paper—Its early tone—‘Brutus’ attacks funding system—Attacks on Freneau’s paper—‘Work of foreigners’—Of a ‘junto’—‘Sidney’ assails Hamilton and his policies—Other assaults in Freneau’s paper—Fenno to the defense—Demolished by Freneau—Scene at the Morris house—The rivals visit a factory—Washington’s hope for reconciliation—Fenno regrets lack of King—Fenno versus Freneau—Fenno again crushed—Hamilton’s rage—His ‘T.L.’ letter—Freneau’s reply—Hamilton’s anonymous attacks on Jefferson—Seeks affadavit from Boudinot—Washington appeals for peace—Hamilton’s reply—Jefferson’s—Hamilton continues—Madison attacks Hamilton’s letter—Fenno fears duels—Jefferson holds aloof—Attack postpones his plans to retire—‘It is a Fact’—Collapse of St. Clair’s expedition—Jeffersonians attack Knox—Bubble of speculation bursts—Press denounces the gamblers—The Duer failure—Business paralyzed—Charged to funding system—The Clinton-Jay contest—Bitter campaign of 1792—Federalist pessimism—Maryland fight—Hamilton involved—In North Carolina—In Kentucky—In Virginia—Hamilton’s cultivation of Virginia Federalists—Adams opposed—Hamilton to the rescue—Carroll for Vice-President—McHenry’s letter—Hamilton orders Adams to his post—Press battle over Adams—Results. | |
| IX. Hamilton’s Black Winter | 185 |
| A remarkable winter—Jeffersonians aggressive—Hamilton’s methods challenged—Madison demands report on finances—Hints of corruption—Threats of Duer—Blackmail of Reynolds—Explanation asked of Hamilton—Scene in Hamilton’s office—In his home—His confession concerning Mrs. Reynolds—Jeffersonians attack finances—Fight planned at Jefferson’s—Portrait of Giles—Freneau creates atmosphere for assault—First Giles Resolutions—Giles’s speech—Hamilton’s indignation—His candle-lit office—His prodigious achievement—His friends’ enthusiasm—Criticism of his enemies—Technical violation of law—Giles resolution of condemnation—The political strategy—The caucus at Hamilton’s—The debate—The night session—Madison sums up—Ames replies—The vindication—Reactions of the press—Toast at Providence Society dinner—Jeffersonians analyze the vote—‘Parties to the cause’—Jefferson finds bank directors and speculators did it—A conference at Port Royal—John Taylor’s pamphlet—End of the fiscal phase. | |
| X. Ça Ira | 207 |
| The French Revolution—Its appeal to American democrats—A wave of enthusiasm—At Baltimore—At Boston—At Charleston—Political significance of the Revolution to America—Americans divide on issue of democracy—Federalists opposed—Their action in the Senate—Denunciations of France—Federalist scorn for Louis’s weakness—Jefferson’s attitude—His instructions to Ministers—Hamiltonians capitalize execution of King—‘Cato’ revived in Philadelphia—‘Capet has lost his Caput’—Sorrow at Providence—‘Cordelia’ urges black rose for mourning—Tide turns against the French—Jefferson’s disgust—Society mourns—Jefferson and Madison on right to execute—George III joins coalition—‘Monarchy versus Democracy’—Masses swing back to France—Under the Bingham windows—Bitterness against England—Hamilton’s alarm—Summons Washington from Mount Vernon—Hamilton’s misrepresentation of England’s action—He usurps Jefferson’s functions—Prepares questions for Cabinet council—Cabinet struggle—Neutrality Proclamation—Madison’s anger—Protests of the streets—Genêt—His ovations—Jefferson and Madison pleased—Hamiltonians plan cool reception in Philadelphia—Popular protests—False report on Count de Noailles—Hysterical reception—Washington cold—Press attacks Neutrality—A French craze—Mobs march—The provocations—Scenes in theaters—Federalists mock—Democratic clubs—Their political significance—How Neutrality fared—Genêt’s madness—English outrages—‘Red Coats’ toasted—‘Pacifist’—Jefferson orders Madison to reply—Attacks on Hamilton—The ‘Little Sarah’—Jefferson and Genêt—Reactions against French—Madison meets it—Cabinet confers on Genêt—Jefferson demands his recall—Society pro-English—Party bitterness—Jefferson’s social ostracism—He resigns—Washington’s efforts to dissuade him—A near duel—A scare in Boston—Yellow fever in Philadelphia—Hamilton stricken—Jefferson’s Report on Commerce—A party document—He retires to Monticello. | |
| XI. Hectic Days | 240 |
| Madison’s Commercial Resolutions—Their political purpose—English party aroused—Hamilton speaks by proxy—Madison avows retaliation—The debate—Ames’s unfortunate speech—Arraignment of English outrages and defense—‘An English agent here’—Press attacks on Madison—Jeffersonians call town meetings—At Boston—At New York—At Philadelphia—At Portsmouth—Ames and Smith hung in effigy—Vogue of Smith’s speech in London—Hammond an English Genêt—British Orders in Council—Seizure of American vessels—Retaliatory measures—Hamiltonians plead for calmness—A mercenary patriot—English Minister insulted—Jeffersonian press fans the flames—French outrage in Charleston—Clamor for war—Hamiltonians plead for negotiations—Prefer Hamilton to negotiate—His intimacy with British Minister and Agent—‘No. 7’—Protests against Hamilton—A Federalist caucus—Hamilton selected—Veer to Jay—His personality and character—His fatal admission—Fight against his confirmation—Popular protests—Hamiltonian caucus prepares Jay’s instructions—He sails—The ‘Whiskey Boys’—Their grievances—Insurrection—Political phase—Hamilton welcomes military measures—Demanding a law’s repeal is urging its violation—Attacks on Democratic Societies—Their position—That of the Jeffersonian press—Hamilton goes to war—‘Why Hamilton?’—‘Where is Knox?’—Hamilton plans a political effect—Cruelty to prisoners—The chariot wheels of the conqueror—East versus the frontier—Elections of 1794—Ames’s close call—Livingston’s triumph—Gives Ames the ‘hypo’—In North Carolina—Fitzsimons defeated—Jefferson’s summer—Dr. Priestley arrives—Cobbett’s attack—Life in Philadelphia—Theater mobs—Washington attacks Democratic Societies—Madison meets and defeats approval in House—The bitter debate—The press battle—Foreshadowings of Alien and Sedition Laws. | |
| XII. The Marching Mobs | 266 |
| Hamilton resigns—Fenno’s tribute—Bache’s comment—Madison’s—Hamilton given dinner in Philadelphia—In New York—Greenleaf on the banquet—Jay’s negotiations—Hamilton’s indiscretion—Jay’s treaty—Hamilton’s disgust—Jefferson’s—Why Hamilton would not reject—His reservations—Senate debates in secret—Withholds treaty from publication—Hamilton doubts wisdom—Senator Mason—He gives treaty to press—Bache’s comments on the secrecy—Mob at Goldbury’s wharf—Philadelphia mob on the 4th—Jay burned in effigy—Dinner on Frankfort Creek—Protest meeting in State House yard—‘Kick it to hell’—Rival dinners in New York—Letter to ‘Sir John Jay’—Boston mobs—Charleston mob—Rutledge denounces treaty—Mass meeting at Richmond—Portsmouth mass meeting—Dinner to Langdon—In Vermont—In Connecticut—In Rhode Island—In Delaware—Jay burned in effigy in Georgia—Street brawls—Tavern quarrels—Washington’s hesitation—Cabot anxious—Ellsworth disgusted—Randolph scandal—Washington signs treaty—Appeals to Washington to make public plea—Bache attacks him—Hamilton writes ‘Camillus’—Trouble with editor—British outrages continue—Jeffersonians use them—Jefferson asks Madison to reply to Hamilton. | |
| XIII. The Drama of ‘96 | 289 |
| Senate rejects Rutledge—Jefferson’s comment—Edward Livingston—Portrait of Albert Gallatin—The Livingston Resolution—A constitutional question—The debate—Cobbett’s offensive action—Gallatin’s speech—Sedgwick’s sneer at the people—Resolutions adopted—Hamilton’s concern—His advice to Washington—Fight on appropriations for treaty—Disunion threats—Jefferson and Madison on Washington’s action—‘Still in leading-strings’—Organizing outside sentiment during debate—Insurance companies enter politics—Banks also—Boston mass meeting—Otis’s sneer at Gallatin—Abuse of Gallatin—Intimidation—Federalist alarm—Portrait of Fisher Ames—His physical collapse—The invalid’s slow journey to the capital—Warrior borne on a stretcher—His sensational speech—Hamiltonians’ delight—‘In the hands of Pitt’—The vote—The effect—Jefferson during treaty fight—His health—The Mazzei letter—Presidential election—Patrick Henry sounded by Hamiltonians—They choose Pinckney—Thomas Pinckney—Adams versus Jefferson—Scurrility—Adet’s letter—Hamilton’s scheme against Adams—His dislike of Adams—Adams or secession—The results—Hamiltonian distrust of Jefferson as Vice-President—Jefferson cultivates Adams—The undelivered letter—Jeffersonian press complimentary to Adams—Federalist displeasure. | |
| XIV. An Incongruous Portrait Gallery | 315 |
| A treacherous Cabinet—Portrait of John Adams—Of Timothy Pickering—Of Oliver Wolcott—Of James McHenry. | |
| XV. Comedy and Heroics | 339 |
| The crisis with France—Portrait of Gouverneur Morris—Compared with Monroe—Monroe’s difficulties in Paris—Federalist intrigue against him—Ignored by Pickering—Deceived by Jay—French indignation over Jay’s treaty—Monroe’s recall—Pinckney refused—Hamilton proposes a mission—Suggests Madison as one—War party’s opposition—Hamilton prevails—Adams’s objections to Jefferson for the mission—He confers with Jefferson—Latter discourages sending Madison—Ames proposes Cabot—Adams names Gerry—Thinks Hamilton ‘in a delirium’—Adams’s Message—Harrison Gray Otis—Robert Goodloe Harper—Debate on Reply to the Message—Livingston attacks English party—Harper’s war speech—It is popular in London—British Minister conspicuous on floor—Taps Harper on shoulder—Dayton’s compromise—War party attacks him—Lyon shocks the formalists—Is attacked—His hot reply—‘Porcupine’ assails him—Mass attack on Jefferson—His silence—Luther Martin attacks him—Is insulted at Harvard—‘Porcupine’s’ abuse—Jefferson drops society—English party jeers memory of Franklin—Hisses Paine—First toast to Women’s Rights—Abuse of Swanwick—Of Mrs. M’Lean—Of Giles—Press comments on Hamilton’s Reynolds pamphlet—Brilliant social season for Federalists—Scene at Adams’s dinner table—Porcupine’s Gazette—William Cobbett—Rival banquets—Discourtesy to Monroe—Dinner in his honor—He confers with party leaders—Gallatin’s conclusions—Lyon-Griswold fight—Press comments. | |
| XVI. Hysterics | 362 |
| Hamiltonians bent on war—Hamilton runs the government—Bitterness of debates—Harper’s wild war speech—Petitions against arming ships—Adams’s ‘insane message’—Hamilton in the wings—Sprigg Resolution—Harper’s blunder—X Y Z papers—Partisan abuse—Jefferson disheartened—War clouds lower—Jefferson’s view of X Y Z—Madison’s—Monroe’s—War hysteria—Adams greets young warriors of capital—A drunken mob—Attack on Bache’s house—Adams alarmed—The ‘terror’ of Fast Day—‘Hail Columbia’—Resented by Jeffersonians—Author rewarded—War hawks beat tom-toms—Hamilton urges Washington to stir the country—Ames demands war at once—Return of Marshall—His ovation—Partisan purpose—Capitalization of Pinckney’s return—Hamilton writes philippics against France—Jefferson asks Madison to reply—‘Porcupine’s’ war propaganda—War party keeps presses busy with Harper’s speech—Other war pamphlets—Clergy joins war hawks—‘Why so much anger in the heart of a divine?’—Terrorizing Jeffersonians—Jefferson ready—Bache assaulted—Hamilton goes gasconading—His amazing letter—Democrats fight for time—Jefferson insulted—Ostracized—Spied upon—Mail opened—Abusive toasts—Persecution of Lyon—Of Livingston—Of a Boston editor—The Alien Law—Hatred of the Irish—Political reason—Jeffersonians and English Whigs versus Hamiltonians and Pitt—Hamiltonians and Irish Rebellion—King’s part—Otis’s ‘wild Irish’ speech—Sedition laws proposed—Hamilton shocked at original bill—Mobbing Democrats in debate—Livingston’s speech on Alien Bill—Wild talk in Sedition Bill debate—Yellow fever again—Dr. Rush—Death of Fenno—Of Bache—Elections of ‘98—Washington an active and extreme partisan—Marshall’s campaign—Opposes Alien and Sedition Laws—‘Porcupine’s’ comment—Reign of Terror begins—College degrees for Federalists—‘Patriot’ mobs—Jeffersonians discharged from jobs—A Bishop’s sermon. | |
| XVII. The Reign of Terror | 386 |
| Arrest of Matthew Lyon—A ludicrous trial—Cruel treatment—Loathsome cell—Protest of Green Mountain Boys—Lyon in jail elected to Congress—Plans to rearrest him—His fine subscribed—Dramatic scene on release—Ovations en route to Congress—Persecution of the Reverend J. C. Ogden—Imprisoned—Assaulted by soldiers—Arrest of Anthony Haswell—His offense—Brutal treatment—Trial—Ovation on release—Case of David Brown—The comedy case of Richard Fairbanks—Ames’s plea—Persecution of Adams of the Chronicle—Resentment of public—Trial—Dana’s bitter charge—Adams in jail—Visited by Sam Adams—William Duane—The Saint Mary’s Church ‘riot’—Arrest—Trial—Dallas excoriation—Acquittal—Rearrest—Case of Thomas Cooper—Chase on the bench—His conduct—Cooper imprisoned—Refuses pardon—Dinner on release—The Callender case—Chase’s boast—His conduct—Lawyers refuse to proceed—Case of Judge Peck—Public sentiment aroused—Political effect—Case of Charles Holt—The list of victims—Use of Alien Law—Case of John D. Burk—Of Moreau de Saint Merys—Toasting Alien and Sedition Laws—Harper’s jeer—Mass meetings demanding repeal—Congressional speakers for repeal mobbed—A conference at Monticello—Portrait of John Breckenridge—Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions—As viewed at the time—Answers of Legislatures—Fight in Massachusetts—By Senator John Bacon—And Aaron Hill—Abuse of Bacon—Stoning of Hill’s house—Porcupine preaches right of secession. | |
| XVIII. Adams Pulls down the Pillars | 412 |
| ‘Hamilton’s war’—Hamilton for commander—Adams’s veto—Cabinet conspired for Hamilton against Adams—McHenry’s trip to Mount Vernon—The trick turned—Adams’s revolt—Hamilton’s activities—Wolcott’s—The Essex Junto’s—Working on Washington—His letter to Adams—Latter’s retort—Exclusion of Jeffersonians from commissions—Washington in accord—Hamilton’s charge—Adams overruled on Burr—And Muhlenberg—Moderate Federalists protest extremes—Jeffersonian sarcasm—Hamilton organizes for war—His difficulties—Scolds McHenry—Decline of war spirit—Jefferson fears insurrection over taxes—eight per cent interest—‘Damned army will ruin the country’—Jeffersonians capitalize eight per cent—Fries Rebellion—Hamilton in Philadelphia—Soldier outrages—On Jacob Schneider—On Duane—‘Porcupine’s’ delight—Militarism rampant—Recruiting lags—Clergy to the rescue—Attempt to revive war fever—Army for domestic purposes—Desertions—Discussions on executions—Logan goes to Paris—Federalist alarm—War unnecessary—Why Otis knew it—Cries of ‘treason’—Logan learns French wish peace—Snubbed by Pickering—By Washington—The Logan Law—Jeffersonians fight—Harper exposed—Case of Gerry—The Miranda conspiracy—Hamilton’s part—His plan to wipe out the States—Adams consults Cabinet on negotiations—Is ignored—Conspirators frame Message—Adams’s amendment—Hamiltonians caucus to force declaration of war—Defeated—Pickering sulks—Adams nominates an envoy—Enemies caucus—Committee calls—Porcupine attacks—Retreats—Compromise on mission—Some Hamiltonian letters—An Adams dinner—Procrastination—Working on Adams—Cabot calls—Adams’s summer—Adams at Trenton—Talks with Hamilton—With Ellsworth—A Cabinet meeting—Envoys sail—Rage of Hamiltonians—Dreary winter in Philadelphia—Marie Bingham’s escapade. | |
| XIX. ‘The Grapes of Wrath’ | 440 |
| Enter John Marshall—The Ross Bill—Withheld from public—Duane gets and prints it—Protests—Marshall’s disaffection—Working on Marshall—He wrecks the bill in the House—What Jefferson had done—His platform—Jeffersonian leaders in South Carolina—‘Rye House Plot’—Jefferson at home—New York election—Aaron Burr—Compared with Hamilton—Hamilton takes charge—His plan—His caucus and ticket—Burr’s system of espionage—His personal machine—Tammany—Caucuses at his home—Plans Assembly ticket of national figures—Labors with Gates, Clinton, and Livingston—Wins consent—Shock to Hamilton—Attacks on Clinton and Gates—Merchants mobilized—Burr organizes—His brilliant work—Campaigning with the lowly—The election—Hamilton’s proposal to Jay—Burr for Vice-President—Federalist losses in New England—Caucus agrees on Adams and C. C. Pinckney—Adams’s rage over New York—Scene with McHenry—Pickering dismissed—Hamilton’s letter to Pickering—His excitement—Reactions of Hamiltonians—They plan defeat of Adams—Adams toasts ‘proscribed patriots’—An anti-Adams session of the Cincinnati—Hamilton’s New England tour—His political purpose—Sees Governor Gilman in New Hampshire—Meets rebuff in Rhode Island—A meeting of the Essex Junto—At Salem—At Ipswich—At Newburyport—Hamilton’s unfortunate statement—Jeffersonian ridicule—Hamilton grasps the situation. | |
| XX. Hamilton’s Rampage | 464 |
| Hamilton plans coercion of Federalist electors—Letter to Carroll—Enemies in Adams’s camp—Wolcott’s treachery—Cabot doubtful—Noah Webster deserts Hamilton for Adams—Attitude of press—Jeffersonians attack Hamilton—Their campaign—The Dayton scandal—‘Adams a monarchist’—Langdon’s signed statement—Corroboration from New Haven—Webster’s slur at the poor—Fenno’s fatal pamphlet—Secession talk of Federalists—Wolcott’s father—Letters of ‘Pelham’—Those of ‘Burleigh’—Reply of ‘Rodolphus’—Jeffersonian progress in New England—In Connecticut—Abraham Bishop—His Phi Beta Kappa oration—Political preachers—The Reverend Cotton Smith’s slander—Jefferson’s comment—The Reverend Dr. Abercrombie—Duane attacks—Dr. Lynn electioneers for Pinckney—Rebuked by Jeffersonian woman—Persecution of Jeffersonian clergymen—Pamphlets on Jefferson’s religion—Ridicule of Federalists’ religious pose—‘Diary’ of Fayton—Federalists seek Catholic votes—Hamilton plans personal attack on Adams—Seeks aid of Adams’s Cabinet—Writes pamphlet—Burr gets and publishes—Editor of New York Gazette explains—Hamilton’s case against Adams—Cabot’s criticism—Major Russell’s floundering—Jeffersonian press attacks Hamilton—Pamphlet replies—Hamilton eager to answer—Friends dissuade—Election tricks—In Pennsylvania. | |
| XXI. Democracy Triumphant | 486 |
| Washington City—Morris’s cynical description—Mrs. Adams’s—The physical town—Lodgings—Social life—Jefferson calls on Adams—His lodgings at Conrad’s—Others at Conrad’s—Federalist conspiracy to elect Burr—Hamilton’s indignation—His attempt to dissuade his party—A drama in letters—Morris and Jay join Hamilton—Others desert—Harper calls on Morris—Plan to prevent an election—Burr’s aloofness—He hears from Harper—Burr’s letter to General Smith—Hamilton wins McHenry—Pickering’s preference for Burr—Bayard’s embarrassment—Sedgwick for Burr—Federalist caucus agrees on Burr—Hamilton makes serious charge—His depression—The serenity at Conrad’s—Jefferson’s non-political letters—Visitors pack the town—Federalist press in the contest—Gallatin surveys the field—Jefferson’s secret plan—He writes Burr—Writes scientific friends on bones—Hamilton’s final shot at Wolcott dinner—A Washington snowstorm—Nicholson carried in bed to Capitol—Scenes during all-night voting—The drama of the struggle—Jefferson during the voting—Approached by Morris—Conspirators surrender—Adams notified—Jefferson takes leave of Senate—Morris’s resolutions of thanks—The die-hards protest—Inaugural crowds—Creating new judges—Adams rewards Wolcott—Adams’s flight—Sedgwick’s—Breakfast at Conrad’s—Jefferson sworn in by Marshall—‘All Federalists, all Republicans’—Mrs. Smith pours tea—Epilogue. | |
| Books, Pamphlets, Newspapers, and Magazines Cited or Consulted | 513 |
| Index | 519 |
ILLUSTRATIONS
| Thomas Jefferson | Frontispiece |
| From a copy of the Thomas Sully portrait, painted by Nancy Clifton M. Randolph, wife of Thomas Jefferson Randolph IV, a lineal descendant of Jefferson | |
| Alexander Hamilton | 22 |
| From an engraving by E. Prud’homme after a miniature by Archibald Robertson | |
| Mrs. William Bingham | 128 |
| From an engraving in Rufus Wilmot Griswold’s Republican Court after the painting by Gilbert Stuart | |
| Four Hamiltonians | 140 |
| Fisher Ames | |
| From a portrait by Gilbert Stuart | |
| Robert Goodloe Harper | |
| From a painting | |
| George Cabot | |
| From a woodcut after a pastel of Cabot at the age of sixteen, the only known portrait | |
| Gouverneur Morris | |
| From an engraving after a portrait by Thomas Sully | |
| Four Jeffersonians | 148 |
| Albert Gallatin | |
| From a portrait by Gilbert Stuart | |
| Edward Livingston | |
| From an engraving by E. Wellmore after a drawing by J. B. Longacre | |
| William Branch Giles | |
| From a miniature painted in Washington in 1812, reproduced in heliotype in The Centennial of Washington’s Inauguration, by Clarence Winthrop Bowen | |
| James Madison | |
| From a portrait by Thomas Sully | |
| Facsimile of Hamilton’s Letter to Oliver Wolcott Appointing Him Auditor in the Treasury Department | 332 |
| From the original pasted in George Gibbs’s own copy of his Administrations of Washington and Adams | |
| The Griswold-Lyon Fight in the House | 360 |
| From a contemporary cartoon | |
| ‘Mad Tom in a Rage’ | 384 |
| From a contemporary cartoon typical of the Federalist attacks on Jefferson | |