Journeys Through Bookland, Vol. 10: The Guide

The sonnet may be addressed to any person or thing and is the direct personal expression of the author’s feeling. It is like the ode, and also partakes of the general nature of the elegy, but it differs from both in the rigidity of the rules of form that govern it. Sonnets originated in Italy, and the genuine Italian sonnet is very exacting in form. It must consist of exactly fourteen lines of iambic pentameter. These lines are divided into two groups, one of which consists of eight lines or two quatrains, the whole known as the octave. The remaining six lines constitute the sestet. The first and last line of each quatrain rhyme together, while the middle lines of each form the second rhyme. In the sestet usually the first line rhymes with the fourth, the second with the fifth and the third with the sixth. As a whole the sonnet contains one idea, which in the octave is general, in the sestet specific, for the sestet expresses the conclusion of the octave.

The difficulties of composition under such arbitrary limitations are evident, and it is not to be wondered at that even famous poets have utterly failed when they have essayed to write in this form. The sonnet has met with severest criticism, some writers failing to see any beauty in it. Coleridge says: “And when at last the poor thing is toiled and hammered into fit shape, it is in general racked and tortured prose rather than anything resembling poetry.” Though Lord Byron wrote a few himself he defined the sonnet as “The most puling, petrifying, stupidly Platonic composition.”

But this is hardly fair to the many exquisitely beautiful lyrics that in this form grace the English language. Those “little pictures painted well,” those “monuments of a moment” are among our most graceful poems, and the reader who has not learned to delight in a beautiful sonnet has missed the most refined pleasure English literature has to give.

The following exquisite sonnet, Victor and Vanquished, by Longfellow, is formed on the Italian model:

Is there a unity of thought in this sonnet? Does the poet consistently allude to some one thing? Was Longfellow old or young when he wrote this? What does Longfellow represent himself to be? Why does he “set his back against the wall”? In these days of Mauser rifles would it do any good to set one’s back against the wall for protection against an approaching enemy? Was it ever an advantage? Who is the foe that follows him? How can Death be “but a phantom and a wraith” and at the same time follow the poet triumphantly? What do his weapons and his armor indicate as to what he represents himself? What is the “broken sword”? Who fight in tournaments? What is there appropriate in the word “tilt”? How can the one who is vanquished be victor still? Is the figure of medieval knighthood well sustained?

The earliest European dramas of which we have any record were the plays performed in ancient Greece five hundred years before Christ. There were very few characters introduced, sometimes only one or two, and a chorus was the most important part of the representation. This chorus served to fill the gaps in the action, to state what had preceded and at times even to comment upon the actors, to exhort or to praise or condemn their behavior. The Greek dramatists carefully followed the so-called rule of three unities: unity of time, whereby the action must be compressed into one day; unity of place, by which only one place must be represented; and unity of action, whereby the movement of the piece must be continuous, all the incidents be connected so as to form one main line of thought. The rule of three unities was followed very closely by the French dramatists up to comparatively recent times; but in England, beginning with the Elizabethan era, no restraint was placed upon dramatic technique except unity of action, which still remains essential.

During the Middle Ages the drama was represented by miracle and mystery plays dealing with sacred history. They differed in subject only. The miracle plays represented the lives of saints and their miraculous deeds; the mysteries, the mysterious doctrines of Christianity and various biblical events. During an age when preaching was unusual, the clergy reached the souls of their people by means of these rude plays which were at first given in churches; but later, when the town guilds and trade organizations began to present them, the stage was a traveling cart, roughly fitted up with rude scenery. Still later, before theaters were built, the wandering players acted in inn yards or courtyards. Female parts were always taken by boys, and it was not until after Shakespeare’s time that women appeared on the stage.

In the reign of Henry VI the mysteries were in part superseded by the morality plays, although the former did not wholly go out of style until the time of Elizabeth. The passion play given every ten years at Oberammergau, Bavaria, is a survival of the old mystery play. The moralities personified the virtues and vices common to man, and attempted to teach moral lessons by allegorical representations. When popular interest in these dramas began to lag, current topics were introduced into the dialogue, and characters from real life appeared on the stage for the first time. Early in the sixteenth century John Heywood invented a farcical composition called The Interlude to relieve the tiresome monotony of existing plays. But it was in 1540 that the first comedy appeared, and it is not too much to say that this play marks the beginning of modern English drama. Nicholas Udall, head master of Eton College, being accustomed to write Latin plays for his boys, concluded to try his hand at an English drama. The result was Ralph Royster Doyster, the first comedy. In 1562 Queen Elizabeth was entertained by the presentation of the first English tragedy, a play entitled Gorboduc, by Thomas Sackville.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries amateur dramatic productions called masques were presented. Sometimes even nobles and members of the royal family took part. These plays were accompanied by music, dancing, and spectacular effects. The literary character of the masque developed into the compositions of Ben Jonson, and culminated in Milton’s Comus. During the reign of Elizabeth the productions of Kyd, Peele, Greene, Marlowe, and Beaumont and Fletcher raised the drama to such a lofty plane that only the genius of a Shakespeare could surmount it.

There are two distinct classes of modern dramas—tragedies and comedies. In the former, events crowd irresistibly on to some terrible conclusion, usually resulting in the death of the principal characters. An atmosphere of gloom surrounds it, and the flashes of light serve but to intensify the general darkness. Even when the soul of the reader recognizes the justice of the end it rebels against the horrors of the situation. The deeper and darker passions predominate; love is swallowed up in hate and happiness drowned in grief. The comedy is in a lighter and happier vein; its situations may be trying but they end happily; the sun shines and the air is clear; if storms appear they are the showers of a summer day, not awful tempests. The comedy descends through various forms to the travesty and farce whose purpose is solely to excite laughter by ludicrous scenes and absurd incidents. The melodrama abounds in thrilling situations and extravagant efforts to excite emotions, but its final outcome is a happy one, and the villain is punished and virtue is comfortably rewarded.

Dramas may be written in prose or in poetic form. The tendency is toward prose in comedy and poetry in tragedy, though in the same play both prose and poetry are sometimes used. The most common form for the poetic composition is the unrhymed iambic pentameter or blank verse (heroic measure). Rhymes are in use but usually their purpose is definite and specific and they may occur occasionally in plays which are otherwise in blank verse. Lyrics are often introduced, and in them both rhyme and meter are varied at the pleasure of the author.

Journeys Through Bookland contains numerous illustrations of the facts of this chapter and plentiful examples of every form of literature except the sonnet, of which a type has just been given. The outline which follows will summarize this chapter and show a few of the examples that may be formed.

Literature

1. I. Prose.
2. 1. Forms of Prose Composition.
3. A. Narration.
4. The Pine Tree Shillings: IV, 192.
5. A Christmas Carol: VI, 244.
6. B. Description.
7. Brute Neighbors: VII, 260.
8. The Alhambra: VIII, 153.
9. Children’s Books of the Past: V, 101.
10. C. Exposition.
11. Imitation of Christ: VI, 134.
12. The Cubes of Truth: VII, 406.
13. Reading History: V, 394.
14. D. Argument.
15. Poor Richard’s Almanac: VI, 407.
16. 2. Kinds of Prose.
17. A. Fiction.
18. Aladdin: III, 288.
19. Tom Brown at Rugby: V, 469.
20. The Adventure of the Windmills: VII, 438.
21. B. Essays.
22. Childhood: VI, 124.
23. Dream Children: VIII, 335.
24. The Vision of Mirza: IX, 285.
25. C. Orations.
26. The Gettysburg Address: IX, 321.
27. Abraham Lincoln: IX, 324.
28. II. Poetry.
29. 1. Structure of Poetry.
30. A. Rhyme.
31. The Country Squire: VI, 474.
32. To My Infant Son: VI, 478.
33. B. Meter.
34. The Daffodils: VII, 1.
35. The Old Oaken Bucket: VII, 11.
36. Bannockburn: VII, 15.
37. Boat Song: VII, 17.
38. 2. Kinds of Poetry.
39. A. Epics.
40. a. Heroic Epics.
41. Death of Hector: IV, 364.
42. Wooden Horse: IV, 383.
43. b. Lesser Epics.
44. Saint Nicholas: II, 202.
45. Pied Piper of Hamelin: III, 384.
46. Incident of the French Camp: IV, 174.
47. Sohrab and Rustum: VI, 173.
48. B. Lyrics.
49. a. Songs.
50. (1) Sacred.
51. Nearer Home: IV, 126.
52. Lead, Kindly Light: V, 110.
53. (2) Secular.
54. Annie Laurie: VI, 119.
55. Auld Lang Syne: VI, 228.
56. Those Evening Bells: VII, 340.
57. (3) Patriotic.
58. Battle Hymn of the Republic: V, 399.
59. America: VIII, 60.
60. b. Odes.
61. To the Fringed Gentian: VII, 4.
62. Ode to a Skylark: VII, 275.
63. To H. W. L.: IV, 84.
64. c. Elegies.
65. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard: VI, 360.
66. d. Sonnet.
67. e. Drama.
68. The Tempest: VIII, 364.

CHAPTER XIV

Journeys Through Bookland in Its Relation to the School

Reading and Language

These books were prepared expressly for home readings, but as has been said elsewhere, they were prepared with a definite purpose to make them a living adjunct to school work and a strong helper in bringing the home and the school together. To accomplish this result it was necessary that all the studies offered in Journeys should be after the most approved methods and that there should be no selections that could not with propriety be used in any school in the land. This principle of selection made it necessary to exclude some selections that might have been pleasing but at the same time were not universal in their acceptance. Again, it was necessary to include literature that was in a sense technical, that would apply to every class that young readers have in school. This does not mean that there are a great many things that are purely geographical or purely historical or that deal directly with the study of language and literature. It means that the reader of Journeys will find selections that he can use in nearly every class in school and that those selections are in the highest degree literary. In no way does a child learn more thoroughly that geography and history are worth study in themselves than by meeting them clothed in the beauty of fine writing. In no way will he be led more quickly into a love for nature in all her manifestations and into a keen desire to study nature than by the hand of literature. Language takes on a new interest when it becomes evident that it is a real and necessary help to writing as the great writers do.

Accordingly when the selections were chosen for Journeys, a tabulation of school subjects was made and under each head were placed the things that would be most helpful in school work. It was not decided finally to keep that arrangement in the books, for a different and a better system of grading and classification was selected. Nevertheless the selections are there, and the object of this and the few following chapters is to show what those selections are, how they may be used in school and how their use at home helps in the school work of every reader.

In the grades below the high school the following subjects are considered most important, viz.: reading, language, arithmetic, geography, history and nature study. At the first thought one would say that a set of books such as Journeys can be of no use in the arithmetic class, and of course their usefulness in that direction would not justify their existence. However, there are selections in Journeys that have a decided arithmetical flavor, such as, for instance, Three Sundays in a Week (Volume VI, page 453) and The Gold Bug (Volume IX, page 232). Even among the nursery rhymes is one that is purely arithmetical (Volume I, page 41). We may, however, disregard the arithmetic in Journeys, but we must not lose sight of the fact that the method of reading discussed under the title Close Reading is exactly the method of study that every person must pursue if he is to make any success in mathematics. In no other branch is there a call for such close reading, and only he who can get all the meaning out of the statement of a problem can be certain of his solution. One of the reasons that so many children have trouble with the problems in their arithmetic classes is that they do not read intelligently. Many a good teacher of mathematics will tell you that a large part of her success is due to the fact that she has spent much of the time in the class in teaching her pupils to read understandingly. Many another could make a vast improvement in her methods of teaching if she would spend a part of the time of each recitation in teaching her pupils to read problems till they thoroughly understand them before beginning to work out the formulas. It follows then that every child who masters the art of close reading will be helped in a great measure in all his work in mathematics. The value of Journeys in this connection is that it makes that method of study clear and leads a child to its mastery almost without the recognition of what he is doing. It will teach him to think before he acts and to acquire the habit of looking for the full meaning of everything he reads.

In this and the two following chapters will be given studies of the most important subjects studied in the grades, showing the correlation of the Journeys material. These subjects will be treated in the following order: Reading, Language, Nature Study, Geography and History.

A. Reading

B. Language

At home a similar condition prevails. If the parents are themselves accurate in speech and alive to the importance of making their children good talkers and users of correct English they will be ready with criticism, and unless they are careful will do their share to repress the natural frankness of child nature. Parents who have been teachers are quite as liable to err as others are to remain in ignorance in attempting to understand the psychology of the child mind. Freedom of conversation on topics of interest where correct models of speech are always before the child will accomplish more in making cultivated speech than will twice as much direct instruction. If only parents will read the things that the children are reading and affect an interest in those things they can be certain of giving the best training, while they themselves will grow in happiness and nearness to their offspring. In the fields of literature they can stray together with the consciousness that with all the beauty there is nothing to corrupt.

In a lesser degree, perhaps, the same facts are true in written language, in composition. But in lessons of this type the instructor will not find conditions so favorable: Talking is natural, writing is artificial; to speak is instinctive, to write is an art of difficult attainment. In the first place, a child must be taught to form strange characters with his hand. After he acquires facility in that, he must think, put this thoughts into words in his mind, and then laboriously transfer his words, letter by letter, to the paper before him. Many a child who talks well cannot write a respectable letter. His thoughts outrun his hand, and by the time the first labored sentence is written his ideas have fled and he must begin again. Is it any wonder that his sentences are disconnected, his thought meager?

Just think what it means to a child to write you a letter, or even a brief paragraph! Suppose he wants to tell you about a dog he has at home. He begins by thinking: “My dog, Ben, is a pretty little woolly fellow with bright eyes and long silky ears,” and then his thoughts run off vaguely into the general idea that he is going to tell you about some very cute tricks Ben can perform. The child is all enthusiasm and he begins writing and thinking something like this: “My (that word must begin with a capital letter) dog (‘Ben’ must begin with a capital, too) Ben is a (is that ‘pritty’ or ‘pretty’? It’s pronounced ‘pritty’ anyhow) pritty (that don’t look right. Scratch it out!) pretty (well, that don’t, I mean doesn’t look right either, but I’ll leave it) (For goodness sake, how do you spell it? ‘Wooly’? ‘wolly’? ‘woolly’? I guess I had it right at first) wooly fellow (where shall I put the commas? I’ll leave ‘em out. Teacher can put them in if she wants them.) with bright eyes and long slicky (no, no, that isn’t right! How funny! Scratch it out.) silky ears. (I nearly forgot the period. Now what was I going to say next?).” When he is through, his first sentence is like this: “My dog Ben is a pretty little wooly fellow with bright eyes and long silky ears.” He looks at his work with doubt and disgust as he scratches his head for the next idea. He has wholly forgotten what he intended to tell about! Later, his work, wholly unsatisfactory to himself comes to you for criticism and you take your blue pencil or your pen with red ink and put in the marks if any are needed, indicate the misspelled words and sigh as you say, “Will Charlie ever learn to write a decent composition?” Certainly he will, when his writing becomes mechanical, when his hand makes the letters, puts in the marks, and his lower brain spells the words for him, without disturbing the higher cells which are occupied with his ideas.

These are the diverse problems that confront anyone who tries to teach language to a child. We cannot solve them all, but most certainly we can lend some assistance.

1. Oral Lessons

Everyone must remember that children have heard slang and incorrect speech almost from infancy; that the playground, the street and the home have been steadily teaching, and that the minds of even primary children may be filled with not only loose forms of speech, but even with profane and indecent expressions. One of the natural correctives for such things is the reading and telling of attractive stories, full of dramatic power, calculated to stimulate right feeling, couched in clear and forcible English. Elsewhere in this volume under the title Telling Stories are suggestions and good models.

From the standpoint of the language lesson, children must reproduce the story, must “tell it back” to make it valuable to them. The instructor’s part in this reproduction may be summed up as follows:

1. Be an interested audience for the child.

2. Secure clearness. Do it by a gentle question or a remark now and then: “I am not sure that I understand you.” “Do you think I would know what you mean if I had never read the story?” “If you were telling the story to your playmate would she understand that?”

3. Encourage the child to use his own words, when he follows too closely the phraseology that was given him, yet remember that one of the objects of the exercise is to give the children the use of a wider vocabulary and to make them appreciate and use beautiful and forcible expressions.

4. Be reasonably content with freedom of expression at first, and do not expect too rapid improvement. You are moving against fixed habits.

5. Vary the character of the exercise. Sometimes permit one child to tell the whole story; at other times, call upon other children, or continue the story yourself.

6. If the story is a difficult one, do not ask for its reproduction until it is thoroughly understood. Make its meaning clear by skilful questioning, which with the answers makes an extremely valuable conversation lesson.

7. Encourage the use of beautiful expressions, of fine figures of speech. Do it by using such expressions yourself and by pointing them out in the story or poem you are using.

8. Beware of spoiling a beautiful poem or an elegant prose selection by poor reproduction. After the story has been related and the meaning made clear have the original read several times exactly as it is written and encourage the children to commit it to memory.

There are in Journeys Through Bookland many selections suitable for these oral lessons. For the little folks there are some of the Nursery Rhymes, of Volume I, like the following:

• Little Boy Blue, Page 33.
• Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, Page 30.
• Ladybird, Ladybird, Page 12.
• Little Bo-Peep, Page 9.
• Jack and Jill, Page 27.
• Poor Robin, Page 16.
• There Was a Jolly Miller, Page 47.
• Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, Page 44.

In the same class may be included those beautiful poems by Stevenson and Field, poems that every child loves and will be delighted to talk about. For instance, the following from the same volume:

• The Swing, Page 67.
• Singing, Page 83.
• The Rock-a-by Lady, Page 94.
• My Bed is a Boat, Page 126.
• Foreign Lands, Page 130.
• Little Blue Pigeon, Page 133.
• The Land of Counterpane, Page 144.
• Norse Lullaby, Page 246.
• Where Go the Boats? Page 256.
• Wynken, Blynken and Nod, Page 262.
• Keepsake Mill, Page 349.
• The Duel, Page 384.

The last list, however, includes many of those poems which must not be spoiled by childish re-telling. Use them for conversation subjects and then for reading or recitation.

The fables will be found to provide excellent material, and there need be no fear of ruining their effect as literature:

• The Lion and the Mouse, Volume I, page 75.
• The Wolf and the Crane, I, 96.
• The Lark and Her Young Ones, I, 131.
• The Cat and the Chestnuts, I, 142.
• The Sparrow and the Eagle, Volume II, 8.

Certain of the fairy stories are excellent; so are anecdotes concerning men of whom the children should know; historical tales, and stories about plants, birds and other animals. Among the great number of selections that might be included under this head, some of the best are the following:

1. Fairy Tales and Folk Stories:

• Silverlocks and the Three Bears, Volume I, 101.
• The Hardy Tin Soldier, I, 148.
• Cinderella, I, 224.
• The Ugly Duckling, I, 414.
• Why the Sea is Salt, II, 484.
• The Pied Piper of Hamelin, III, 384.

2. Biographical Stories:

• Robert Louis Stevenson, Volume I, 128.
• Eugene Field, I, 242.
• George Rogers Clark, VI, 422.
• Père Marquette, VIII, 121.

3. Myths:

• The Wonderful Gifts, Volume I, 368.
• The Chimera, II, 173.
• The Story of Phaethon, II, 206.

4. Historical Tales:

• Robert Bruce and the Spider, Volume V, 314.
• The Fall of the Alamo, VIII, 141.
• Hervé Riel, VIII, 168.

5. About Flowers and Plants:

• The Daffodils, Volume VII, 1.
• Trees and Ants That Help Each Other, VII, 306.
• A Bed of Nettles, VIII, 209.

6. About Birds:

• Who Stole the Bird’s Nest? Volume II, 399.
• Owls, IX, 229.

7. About Other Animals:

• Elephant Hunting, Volume VI, 385.
• The Buffalo, VII, 96.
• The Pond in Winter, VII, 280.

The longer stories you will abbreviate in telling, and the children will still further shorten them. Try, however, to retain the spirit of each. Do not try to tell all that is contained in the longer articles mentioned above. Select interesting portions, a single anecdote, a few facts that will hold attention.

At times vary the exercise by giving a very simple theme and ask the children to make up a story to fit it. If they have difficulty, help them to think and talk. When they see what you want some will surprise you with their vivid imaginations and picturesque modes of expression. Suppose you have in mind the fable The Wind and the Sun (Volume I, Page 95). You might present the idea to them in this form: “The Wind and the Sun each tried to make a man take off his coat. The Wind tried and failed, then the Sun tried and succeeded. Can you tell me a story about that?” If you meet with no satisfactory response, begin questioning somewhat in this style, and perhaps the child will answer nearly as indicated:

Question. You don’t know what I mean? Then let us tell it together. How do you think the Wind would try to make a man take off his coat?

Answer. He would try to blow it off.

Q. How would he blow?

A. He would blow hard.

Q. Can you think of another word besides hard to show how he would blow?

A. Fierce.

Q. Fiercely. Yes, “fiercely” is a good word. How fiercely would he blow?

A. Very fierce.

Q. Yes, very fiercely. Did you notice I said “fiercely,” John? Now can’t you think of a comparison with something else that is fierce, so that our story will sound well and people will like it?

A. A lion is fierce. We could say, “He blew as fiercely as a lion.”

Q. But a lion does not blow. What does he do?

A. He tears his prey when he captures it.

Q. That’s good. Now tell me how the Wind tried to make the man take off his coat.

A. The Wind blew fiercely as a lion tears his prey.

Q. Good. Did the man take off his coat?

A. I don’t think he did. I think he would try to keep it on.

Q. How hard do you think he would try?

A. As hard as he could.

Q. Did he lose it?

A. No. No matter what the Wind did I think the man would keep on his coat.

Q. Will you please tell the story as far as we have gone?

A. The Wind and the Sun tried to make a man take off his coat. First the Wind blew as fiercely as a lion tears his prey, but the man clung more closely to his coat and would not let it go.

Q. That is good, but it does not satisfy me yet. I want a longer, prettier story. Let us make believe the Wind and the Sun are two men. Make them talk so they will seem real to us. Can’t you start us?

A. One day Mr. Wind and Mr. Sun got to talking. Each one thought he was stronger than the other. They saw a man walking along the road. He had a big overcoat on and Mr. Wind said that he—

Q. Tell us exactly what Mr. Wind said.

A. Mr. Wind said, “I am stronger than you are. I can make that man take off his coat. You can’t!”

Q. That is a fine start. Tell us what the Sun said.

A. The Sun said that he—

Q. “That he?”

A. The Sun said, “I can make him take off his coat, and I can do it quicker than you can.”

Q. Good. Go on.

A. So they tried. Mr. Wind began. He blew as hard as he could and whistled around the man. He blew as fiercely as a lion tears his prey, but the man wouldn’t take off his coat.

Q. What would the man do to his coat?

A. I think he’d hold on to it, button it up, draw it close around him.

Q. Good. Very good. Now tell the story as well as you can.

A. Begin at the beginning?

Q. Yes.

A. One day Mr. Wind and Mr. Sun got into a quarrel about who was the strongest. While they were at it, a man in a heavy overcoat came walking along the road. When Mr. Wind saw the man he said, “Now see that man down there. I can make him take off his coat, but you can’t.” Mr. Sun replied, “I don’t believe you can do it, but I can, though,” then Mr. Wind said, “Well, I’ll show you, you conceited thing!” So the Wind blew and blew, fierce and loud like a lion attacking his prey, but the man wouldn’t take off his coat. He drew it around him and buttoned it up and hung on to it.

Q. I like your story. But how many people were talking?

A. Two.

Q. Did you mean to say “strongest”?

A. Stronger.

It is not necessary to continue this farther, for enough has been written to show how a story may be developed and improved with each retelling.

The same style of work, perhaps to even better advantage, may be done from the pictures so numerous in Journeys Through Bookland. In this volume, under the title Pictures and Their Use, will be found plentiful suggestions that will be helpful in conversation lessons.

2. Written Lessons

A. Introduction.

The titles given under the preceding section (Oral Lessons) will lead to many excellent exercises for this purpose. Insist on perfect accuracy of copy. Spelling, capitalization and punctuation must be correct. If the original is prose, insist upon proper paragraphing; if poetry, upon exactness in the arrangement of the lines, especially in the matter of indentation. Children will quickly see the relation that indentation bears to rhymes. By following with exactness, the child learns unconsciously to observe the general rules. By occasionally calling attention to the reasons for forms, children are taught to act intelligently and to decide for themselves when they come to original composition.

Rhythm is as natural as breathing, and rhyming is easy for children with quick ears and quick thought. You will be surprised the first time you try the exercise to see how quickly they will imitate a rhythm with which they are familiar, and the skill they show in making rhymes. Try it first as an oral exercise, and later ask for written lines. Much of such work may not be profitable, but it serves well to give variety. Making simple parodies is amusing and stimulating to thought. Sometimes you will help by suggesting rhymes or by giving hints as to the subject to be parodied.

Take the nursery rhyme There Was an Old Woman (Volume I, page 36) for a model. Suggest bird and nest as ideas for new rhymes and keep helping until you get something like this:

There was a sweet birdie
Who built a fine nest,
A beautiful birdie
With a very red breast.

Use the same meter many times over till all become familiar with it. Similar exercises prove highly interesting to children of all ages.

Although this is not a treatise on written language lessons, a few general suggestions may not be out of place:

1. Be sure that the children have something interesting about which to write.

2. Be sure that they have a good stock of ideas on the subject, or that they know how and where to get information and can get it without great difficulty.

3. Be sure that they write an outline of their composition or have one thoroughly in mind before they begin on the essay itself.

4. Give plenty of time for the writing.

5. Show a decided interest in their preparation and in their compositions.

6. Do not be severe in your criticisms. Give encouragement. Concentrate your efforts on one or two errors at a time. Let other mistakes pass till a more convenient time.

7. a. Watch for errors:

(1) In the use of capital letters.

(2) In the use of punctuation marks; first of terminal marks, then of the marks within a sentence.

b. See that every sentence is complete, with subject and predicate.

c. See that verbs agree with subjects, and pronouns with antecedents.

d. Insist that the work be paragraphed.

e. Watch for errors in case among the pronouns. The objective case is troublesome.

f. Look for adjective forms where adverbial forms are correct.

8. Require care in all work. Neatness and legibility are essential.

9. Mark errors, do not correct them. Let the children do that. A simple system of marks will enable you to indicate the nature of the error.

10. When the mistakes have been corrected, have a neat copy made and preserved.

11. Try sincerely to work with your children and to secure a genuine spirit of co-operation.

B. Literature in Written Lessons.

Narration. As in other instances, however, it here seems wise to give a few suggestions specifically for the written exercises, and as a basis for such suggestions we will take selections from Journeys Through Bookland.

Robin Hood has been an interesting character for many generations of schoolboys, and among the ballads concerning him (Volume III, page 436) are several good selections for reading aloud. Most children know something about Robin Hood and many of them have read full accounts, yet probably the old ballads are not familiar. The note on page 436 gives information about the ballads and tells what it is necessary to know about Robin Hood himself. Suppose we take as a subject the ballad on page 444, Robin Hood and the Stranger. The notes explain peculiar expressions and give the meanings of obsolete words. There is a manly, rough-and-tumble spirit in the ballad that boys like, and it is clean and wholesome, as well.

Read the ballad to the children, explaining the more obscure words and phrases as you go along. Encourage the children to ask questions whenever they do not fully understand. Talk freely until you have made everything clear and have secured interest. Then read the whole ballad without interruption. Read with expression and enthusiasm. Show the spirit and virility of the men.

Then by questions bring out the facts of the narrative in logical order as they appear, and have each child copy them for himself. They constitute the outline each is to write. Adapt the outline to the age and acquirements of the child; make it as full or as brief as you please, but make it logical and complete. Let it be similar to the following:

1. Robin Hood goes hunting.

2. He meets a well-dressed stranger.

3. The stranger kills a deer by a remarkable shot with his bow.

4. Robin Hood invites the stranger to join his company.

5. The stranger threatens Robin Hood.

6. They prepare to fight with bows.

7. Robin Hood thinks it a pity that either should be slain, and proposes to fight with broadswords.

8. Robin Hood strikes a heavy blow which the stranger returns with interest.

9. Robin Hood feels great respect for the stranger’s power, and asks who he is.

10. The stranger proves to be Robin Hood’s only nephew.

11. They meet Little John, who wants to fight young Gamwell.

12. Robin Hood compels peace, makes Gamwell second to Little John and names him Scarlet.

Talk to the children freely after you have made the outline; advise them to make the story interesting, dramatic, and not too long. Show them that it is better to use direct discourse; that is, to make the characters seem alive. The result will be a good narration, the simplest and most common form of written discourse.

Description. To so describe a scene to another person that he may see it clearly and vividly is high art. It is necessary in narration and often lends strength to description and exposition. Accordingly, it is one of the most important forms of composition. In no direction, perhaps, can Journeys Through Bookland be of greater assistance.

1. The picture.

2. The cart on which the Lilliputians transport Gulliver. (Read the account in the story for further facts.)

Facing page 116 in the same volume is the halftone of King Arthur in armor. To write a minute description of the armor would be an excellent exercise, requiring close observation and not a little reading, if the children wish to name the pieces of armor the king wears.

II. Many of the stories contain beautiful descriptive passages, which may be studied with profit, and some of the selections are almost wholly descriptive. An excellent example of the latter type and an exceedingly interesting article for children is Some Children’s Books of the Past (Volume V, Page 101).

The King of the Golden River (Volume II, page 405) and A Christmas Carol (Volume VI, page 244) are especially rich in material of this kind. On page 408 of the former selection the King is described at his first appearance. An analysis of the paragraph is to be found on page 445 of the same volume, under the title First Appearance. By comparing the analysis and the descriptive paragraph it will be seen that the former gives the facts only, while in the latter there are comparisons and descriptive words that make the whole vivid and artistic.

1. 1. General statement, or introduction.
2. 2. Nose.
3. 3. Cheeks.
4. 4. Eyes.
5. 5. Beard.
6. 6. Hair.
7. 7. Height.
8. 8. Clothing.
9. a. Hat.
10. b. Coat.
11. c. Vest.
12. d. Trousers.
13. e. Shoes.

Require each child to follow the outline and to write a smooth, readable description of a man whom he knows. Vary the exercise by asking the children to describe some man whose picture you show; some man whom all have seen, or, if it can be done in the proper spirit, one of the other children who is willing to pose. Then ask them to describe some fanciful character about whom you make a general statement, as, for example, “He was the most amusing man I ever saw in my life,” or, “He was certainly the most dignified man in appearance and the best-dressed man I ever saw.” A comparison of the descriptions given by the different members of the class will be amusing and instructive. Try to secure descriptions which in style are in harmony with the subject.

III. In many of the selections the authors have not tried to describe things very fully. In such cases you have fine opportunities to train the imagination by asking the children to supplement the descriptions. For instance, On the Receipt of My Mother’s Picture (Volume VII, page 331) raises among other subjects for descriptive writing the following:

1. 1. Describe Cowper’s mother.
2. 2. Describe the picture he received.
3. 3. Describe the home of his infancy.
4. 4. Describe the “well-havened isle.”

Children should be taught to look through the entire poem for facts that bear on the topics. When writing, they must not misrepresent these facts nor give others that contradict those in the poem. Where nothing is said, the child may see what he likes. Such exercises tend to make children appreciate good literature, and, when they are reading, to visualize the things to which allusion is made.

Exposition. In Volume IV, beginning on page 14, is the story of Martin Pelaez, the Asturian, which will offer good material for a composition of another kind. The introduction to Cid Campeador, page 9, will give you information you are likely to need to answer questions.

e. The first time Martin thought it an honor to himself; the second time, he saw it to be a grave reproof.

f. Thereafter he fought nobly, was seated with the great knights, and became one of the Cid’s most favored friends.

When these points have been fixed in mind, proceed to develop an outline for the composition. It may be something like this:

a. The character of Martin as we first meet him in the story, with instances to prove the nature of it.

b. His character after he was changed by the Cid, with evidences to show it. Exemplified:

1. He was a coward. We know it from—

(a) His flight during the first battle.

(b) His retreat during the second battle.

(c) The fact that he was large, strong and well versed in arms yet would not fight.

(d) The fact that he hoped to escape the notice of the Cid.

2. He was teachable. We know it because he needed but two lessons.

3. He was brave. We know it from his conduct in battle.

4. He had many noble characteristics. We know it because be became the trusted friend of the Cid.

Put into the form of a composition, we might expect something like this:

“Martin Pelaez, when we first knew him, was an arrant coward, for though strong, well-formed and versed in the use of arms, he more than once fled before the enemy. He had other traits of a coward, as we may know from his actions in hiding in his tent and hoping to escape the eye of his master and unfairly gain the reputation of a brave knight.

“Later, however, under the wise treatment of the Cid he was made ashamed of his cowardice, conquered it and became a courageous warrior. In fact, he was one of the bravest and most powerful knights in the army of the Cid.

“More than that, Martin Pelaez developed all the traits of a gentleman. He became a good keeper of secrets, was wise in counsel and brave in action.”

The foregoing is a good example of exposition, the third of the four forms of prose composition.

Argument. The Boston Massacre by Nathaniel Hawthorne (Volume IV, page 217) offers several good questions for debate. We may select the decision of the judges (page 223) as the one furnishing the best opportunity. Hawthorne says, “The judges told the jury that the insults and violence which had been offered to the soldiers justified them in firing at the mob.”

Having determined the form of the question, the children may be separated into two groups, as nearly as possible equal in ability, and one group may be appointed to take the side of the judges and one the side of the soldiers.

Having arranged the preliminaries, converse with the children freely, bringing out points equally in favor of both sides. Avoid any appearance of favoritism. If one side is manifestly stronger than the other, however, you may put them on a level by showing a few arguments to the weaker side. Do this openly, so that all may understand your action.

Encourage the children to study both sides of the question and to be fair-minded. In fact, the ordinary debate where children are appointed to argue upon a certain side of the question does not bring into play the same good methods of thought and judgment as the free debate, in which each child studies both sides of the question, determines which side he thinks the right one, and then argues for that side.

In this question urge the children to study the subject in their histories or in any reference books that may be handy. Help them to get at the truth of the matter. Hawthorne may show prejudice. Does he? We may feel a bias in favor of one side or the other. Do we? Then to the extent of that bias we are liable to be unfair and to fail in making a sound argument.

After the children have read what they can find on the subject, ask them to arrange their arguments in parallel columns, for and against the judges. Something like the following may appear:

The “points” given above show some of the really minor debatable topics that arise under the larger question. They show, too, how differently the same incidents may appear to different eyes. Perhaps some of the “points” are stated unfairly, to give strength to the argument. Bare assertions are not proofs and some of the “points” are nothing but assertions. Opinions are not arguments. Some of the statements would need to bolstered up by facts and “authorities” before they could be accepted as real arguments.

Most debates are oral, but, for our purpose, they are to be considered as written language lessons. Hence, when the arguments are marshalled as above, the child should select the side he feels to be right and compose his argument in proper form. Teach him to see the three parts to his argument, namely, the introduction, the body of his argument, and the conclusion. Tell him to make his style personal, clear, concise, logical, strong, persuasive and convincing. Show him what each characteristic in the above list means.

For example, the argument for the judges made from the assertions given above might be stated as follows:

Introduction. “That the judges were right when they pronounced Captain Preston and the eight British soldiers not guilty of murder when they fired on the colonial mob in what is incorrectly called the ‘Boston Massacre’ will be proved in this argument.”

Body of the Argument. “The citizens of Boston were English subjects who had been fostered by the mother country. Since the settlement at Plymouth in 1620 no other nation had claimed or exercised any control over them, and I maintain that loyalty to his country is one of the highest duties of every citizen.” (It is not advisable to write here the “body” of the argument. It would naturally be continued step by step till the eleven “points” given above had been exhausted. If those “points” had been brought up in the general conversation lesson every child would be expected to add others that he had found by his own study. Liberty of omission, arrangement and addition should always be allowed. Originality is always at a premium.)

Conclusion. “I have now presented to you the reasons for my belief. I have shown you conclusively that the colonists were British subjects and owed unquestioning loyalty to their country; that——[Here recapitulate briefly but forcibly the arguments, so as to present them convincingly and at one time.] In view of all these facts I maintain that I have shown that the judges did not err when they pronounced Captain Preston and the eight soldiers not guilty of murder.”

Of course, the form of the introduction and conclusion may vary from that given here. Each child should be allowed the greatest freedom of expression consistent with the facts that there must be an introduction that states the question fairly and clearly, and a conclusion that shows how much the contentions have been proved.

Conclusion. While narration, description, exposition and argument are the four forms of prose composition, we do not find frequently that selections are exclusively one or another. Nearly every story contains description, and exposition is not infrequent; expositions often contain description and narration, and arguments are often based upon narration and exposition. Excellent language lessons may be given by examining masterpieces to see what forms of composition they represent or which form predominates.

Thus, in An Exciting Canoe Race (Volume VII, page 79), an extract from Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans, may be found several forms of composition:

2. On page 81 is this passage in exposition: “That’s a trail that nothing but a nose can follow; grass is a treacherous carpet for a flying party to tread on, but wood and stone take no print from a moccasin. Had you worn your armed boots, there might indeed have been something to fear; but with the deerskin suitably prepared, a man may trust himself, generally, on rocks with safety. Shove in the canoe higher to the land, Uncas; this sand will take a stamp as easily as the butter of the Jarmans on the Mohawk. Softly, lad, softly; it must not touch the beach, or the knaves will know by what road we have left the place.”

3. On page 86 is this descriptive passage: “The well-known crack of a rifle, whose ball came skipping along the placid surface of the strait, and a shrill yell from the island interrupted his speech and announced that their passage was discovered. In another instant several savages were seen rushing into the canoes, which were soon dancing over the water in pursuit. These fearful precursors of a coming struggle produced no change in the countenances and movements of his three guides, so far as Duncan could discover, except that the strokes of their paddles were longer and more in unison, and caused the little bark to spring forward like a creature possessing life and volition.”

It will be observed that the paragraph just quoted is not purely descriptive, but that it contains something of narration as well. A single sentence of pure description is the following, to be found on page 88: “So rapid was the progress of the light vessels that the lake curled in their front in miniature waves and their motion became undulating by its own velocity.”

The following, from page 90, is a brief argument in conversational form, the elementary form of debate:

“Get you then into the bottom of the canoe, you and the colonel; it will be so much taken from the size of the mark.”

“It would be but an ill example for the highest in rank to dodge, while the warriors were under fire!”

“Lord! Lord! that is now a white man’s courage! And, like too many of his notions, not to be maintained by reason. Do you think the Sagamore or Uncas, or even I, who am a man without a cross, would deliberate about finding a cover in a scrimmage when an open body would do no good? For what have the Frenchers reared up their Quebec, if fighting is always to be done in the clearings?”

“All that you say is very true, my friend; still, our custom must prevent us from doing as you wish.”

Good selections to use for the purposes described and good subjects for compositions are the following from Journeys Through Bookland:

For Narration:

1. 1. Stories from The Swiss Family Robinson, Volume III, page 99.
2. 2. The Story of Siegfried, III, 410.
3. 3. The Death of Hector, IV, 364.
4. 4. Tom Brown at Rugby, V, 469.
5. 5. The Recovery of the Hispaniola, VII, 352.
6. 6. The Adventure of the Windmills, VII, 438.
7. 7. The Adventure of the Wooden Horse, VII, 467.
8. 8. The Battle of Ivry, VIII, 76.

For Description:

1. 1. How the Old Woman Looked. See The Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe, Volume I, page 35.
2. 2. The House in the Tree. See Swiss Family Robinson, III, 141.
3. 3. A Forest Scene. See Pictures of Memory, IV, 128.
4. 4. Sheridan’s Horse. See Sheridan’s Ride, IV, 223.
5. 5. Christmas. See The Fir Tree, II, 68, and Christmas in Old Time, VI, 356.
6. 6. A Scene of My Childhood. See The Old Oaken Bucket, VII, 11.
7. 7. My Old Kentucky Home. See poem of the same name, VII, 179.

For Exposition:

1. 1. The Character of the Boy, Tom. See Tom, the Water Baby, Volume II, page 215.
2. 2. What Kind of a Man was Viking? See The Skeleton in Armor, V, 327.
3. 3. Exaggeration and Falsehood. See Baron Munchausen, V, 403.
4. 4. On the construction, meaning, and sentiment in “Home, Sweet Home.” See VI, 221.
5. 5. The Strength of the Gorilla Compared with that of the Elephant. See A Gorilla Hunt, VII, 247, and Elephant Hunting, VI, 385.
6. 6. The Wit of the Visitor. See Limestone Broth, VI, 467.
7. 7. A Character Sketch of Alice and John. See Dream Children. VIII, 335.