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Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech

Chapter 40: P
By Edward Sapir
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Language & Communication

About This Book

The book presents language as a culturally grounded system of symbolic speech, arguing against purely biological or interjectional origin theories. It treats speech components from sounds and articulatory mechanisms to words and sentence structure, and outlines phonetics, phonology, and grammatical processes such as affixation, mutation, reduplication, and stress. It proposes ways to classify languages by conceptual types and degree of synthesis, and traces historical change through drift, phonetic laws, and analogical leveling. It examines language contact, borrowing, and mutual influence, and discusses relations between language, race, and culture and how linguistic features shape literary style and prosody.

J

  1. Japanese, (205) (207)
  2. Jutes, (224)
  3. Juxtaposing. See Agglutination.

K

  1. Karok (N. California), (220) (229)
    1. K. Indians, (227)
  2. Khmer. See Cambodgian.
  3. Knowledge, source of, as grammatical category, (115)
  4. Koine, (162)
  5. Kwakiutl (British Columbia), (81) (97) (98)

L

  1. Labial trills, (53)
  2. Language:
    1. associations in, (38) (39)
    2. associations underlying elements of, (10) (11)
    3. auditory cycle in, (17)
    4. concepts expressed in, (12)
    5. a cultural function, (2) (10)
    6. definition of, (7)
    7. diversity of, (21-3)
    8. elements of, (24-38)
    9. emotion expressed in, (39-41)
    10. feeling-tones in, (41) (42)
    11. grammatical concepts of, (86-126)
    12. grammatical processes of, (59-85)
    13. historical aspects of, (157-204)
    14. imitations of sounds, not evolved from, (5) (6)
    15. influences on, exotic, (205-20)
    16. interjections, not evolved from, (5)
    17. literature and, (236-47)
    18. modifications and transfers of typical form of, (17-21)
    19. an “overlaid” function, (8)
    20. psycho-physical basis of, (8) (9)
    21. race, culture and, (221-35)
    22. simplification of experience in, (11) (12)
    23. sounds of, (43-58)
    24. structure of, (127-56)
    25. thought and, (12-17) (232) (233)
    26. universality of, (21-3)
    27. variability of, (157-65)
    28. volition expressed in, (39-41)
  3. Larynx, (48-50)
  4. Lateral sounds, (52) (53)
  5. Latin:
    1. attribution, (101)
    2. concord, (121)
    3. infixing, (26) (75)
    4. influence of, (206) (207) (215) (216)
    5. objective -m, (119) (120)
    6. order of words, (65) (66) (123)
    7. plurality, (100)
    8. prefixes and suffixes, (71)
    9. reduplicated perfects, (82) (216)
    10. relational concepts expressed, (101) (102)
    11. sentence-word, (33) (36)
    12. sound as word in, single, (24)
    13. structure, (151) (154)
    14. style, (243) (244)
    15. suffixing character, (134) (137)
    16. syntactic nature of sentence, (116) (118)
    17. synthetic character, (135) (137)
    18. verse, (244) (245) (246)
    19. word and element in, analysis of, (27) (29) (30)
  6. Lettish, (49)
  7. Leveling, phonetic, (193) (194) (195)
    1. See Analogical leveling.
  8. Lips, (48)
    1. action of, (52) (53)
  9. Literature:
    1. compensations in, formal, (246) (247)
    2. language and, (42) (236-47)
    3. levels in, linguistic, (237-41)
    4. medium of, language as, (236) (237)
    5. science and, (238-40)
  10. Literature, determinants of:
    1. linguistic, (240) (241)
    2. metrical, (244-6)
    3. morphological, (241-4)
    4. phonetic, (241)
  11. Lithuanian, (55) (175) (183)
  12. Localism, (161)
  13. Localization of speech, (8) (9)
  14. Loucheux (N. Amer.), (71)
    1. L. Indians, (228)
  15. Lungs, (48)
  16. Luther, German of, (192)

M

  1. Malay, (132)
    1. M. race, (227)
  2. Malayan, (227)
  3. Malayo-Polynesian languages, (219) (221) (227)
  4. Manchu, (80)
  5. Manx, (225)
  6. “Maus, Mäuse” (German), history of, (184) (185) (191-3)
  7. Mediterranean race, (223)
  8. Melanesian languages, (227) (230)
  9. Meter. See Verse.
  10. Milton, (242)
  11. Mixed-relational languages, (146) (147) (154)
    1. complex, (146) (147) (151) (155)
    2. simple, (146) (147) (151)
  12. Modality, (90) (91) (92) (93) (114)
  13. Mon-Khmer (S.E. Asia), (219)
  14. Moore, George, (242)
  15. Morphological features, diffusion of, (217-20)
  16. Morphology. See Structure, linguistic.
  17. “Mouse, mice” (English), history of, (184-93)
  18. Munda languages (E. India), (219)
  19. Murmuring, (50)
  20. Mutation, vocalic, (184) (185) (197-9) (203) (204)

N

  1. Nahuatl (Mexico), (69) (70)
  2. Nasal sounds, (51)
  3. “Nasal twang,” (51)
  4. Nasalized stops, (52)
  5. Nass (British Columbia), (62) (81)
  6. Nationality, (222) (227) (228)
  7. Navaho (Arizona, New Mexico), (71) (77) (83) (136)
    1. N. Indians, (228)
  8. Nietzsche, (241)
  9. Nootka (Vancouver Id.), (29) (33) (35) (68) (70) (74) (79) (82) (95) (109-11) (135) (141-3) (151)
  10. Nose, (48)
    1. action of, (50) (51)
  11. Noun, (123) (124) (126)
  12. Nouns, classification of, (113)
  13. Number, (90) (91) (93) (114)
    1. See Plurality.

O

  1. Object, (92) (98)
    1. See Personal relations.
  2. Ojibwa (N, Amer.), (55)
  3. Onomatopoetic theory of origin of speech, (5) (6)
  4. Oral sounds, (51-4)
  5. Order, word, (64-6) (91) (92)
    1. composition as related to, (67) (68)
    2. fixed, English tendency, (177-9)
    3. sentence molded by, (117) (118)
    4. significance of, fundamental, (119) (120) (123)
  6. Organs of speech, (7) (8) (47) (48)
    1. action of, (48-54)

P

  1. Paiute (N. Amer.), (31) (32) (36) (52) (53) (69) (70)
  2. Palate, (48)
    1. action of soft, (51)
    2. articulations of, (53)
  3. Pali (India), (207)
  4. Papuan languages, (227)
  5. Papuans, (227) (230)
  6. Parts of speech, (123-5) (126)
  7. Pattern:
    1. formal, (61) (63) (234) (242)
    2. phonetic, (57) (58) (187) (93-6) (99) (200) (206) (211) (214) (215) (220)
  8. Persian, (163) (207)
  9. Person, (114)
  10. Personal relations, (91) (92) (93) (115)
  11. Phonetic adaptation, (210) (211)
  12. Phonetic diffusion, (211-15)
  13. Phonetic law:
    1. basis of, (195) (196) (199) (200)
    2. direction of, (194) (195) (199)
    3. examples of, (186-93)
    4. influence of, on morphology, (203) (204)
    5. influence of morphology on, (196-9)
    6. regularity of, (193) (194)
    7. significance of, (186)
    8. spread of, slow, (190) (191)
    9. See Leveling, phonetic; Pattern, phonetic.
  14. Phonetic processes,
    1. form caused by, differences of, (105) (106)
    2. parallel drifts in, (184-93) (197-9)
  15. Pitch, grammatical use of, (83-5)
    1. metrical use of, (246)
    2. production of, (49)
    3. significant differences in, (55) (64)
  16. Plains Indians, gesture language of, (20)
  17. “Plattdeutsch,” (224) (225)
  18. Plurality:
    1. classification of concept of, variable, (110) (111) (112)
    2. a concrete relational category, (99) (100)
    3. a derivational or radical concept, (99)
    4. expression of, multiple, (38) (62)
    5. See Number.
  19. Poles, (225)
  20. Polynesian, (132) (150) (155) (227) (230)
  21. Polynesians, (221) (222) (227) (230)
  22. Polysynthetic languages, (130) (135) (146) (148) (150) (151)
  23. Portuguese, (137)
  24. Predicate, (37) (126)
  25. Prefixes, (26) (64) (70) (71-5)
  26. Prefixing languages, (134) (135)
  27. Preposition, (125)
  28. Psycho-physical aspect of speech, (8) (9)
  29. Pure-relational languages, (145) (147) (154) (155)
    1. complex, (145) (147) (150) (155)
    2. simple, (145) (147) (150)

Q

  1. Qualifying concepts. See Concepts, derivational.
  2. Quality
    1. of speech sounds, (48)
    2. of individual’s voice, (48)
  3. Quantity of speech sounds, (55) (64)

R

  1. Race, (221) (222)
    1. language and, lack of correspondence between, (227)
    2. language and, theoretical relation between, (231-3)
    3. language as correlated with, English, (223-7)
    4. language, culture and, correspondence between, (230) (231)
    5. language, culture and, independence of, (222) (223)
  2. Radical concepts. See Concepts.
  3. Radical element, (26-32)
  4. Radical word, (28) (29)
  5. “Reading from the lips,” (19)
  6. Reduplication, (64) (79-82)
  7. Reference, definite and indefinite, (89) (90)
  8. Repetition of stem, (26)
    1. See Reduplication.
  9. Repression of impulse, (167) (168)
  10. Rhyme, (245) (246)
  11. Rolled consonants, (53)
  12. Romance languages, (137)
  13. Root, (25)
  14. Roumanian, (137)
  15. Rounded vowels, (52)
  16. Russian, (44) (45) (54) (71) (80) (163) (212)

S

  1. Sahaptin languages (N. Amer.), (220)
  2. Salinan (S.W. California), (150) (155)
  3. Sanskrit (India), (54) (75) (82) (151) (154) (175) (200) (207) (209) (210)
  4. Sarcee Indians, (228)
  5. Saxon:
    1. Low, (224)
    2. Old, (175)
    3. Upper, (225)
  6. Saxons, (224) (225)
  7. Scandinavian, (224)
    1. See Danish; Icelandic; Swedish.
  8. Scandinavians, (224)
  9. Scotch, (224) (226)
  10. Scotch, Lowland, (188)
  11. Semitic languages, (61) (68) (76) (134) (151) (219) (228)
  12. Sentence, (33) (36-8)
    1. binding words into, methods of, (115-17)
    2. stress in, influence of, (118) (119)
    3. word-order in, (117) (118)
  13. Sequence. See Order of words.
  14. Shakespeare:
    1. art of, (238) (240)
    2. English of, (188) (189) (191)
  15. Shasta (N. California), (220)
  16. Shilh (Morocco), (77) (81)
  17. Shilluk (Nile headwaters), (84) (150) (154) (155)
  18. Siamese, (55) (66) (70) (207)
  19. Singing, (50)
  20. Siouan languages (N. Amer.), (76)
  21. Sioux (Dakota), (29) (76) (95) (150)
  22. Slavic languages, (212)
  23. Slavs, (225)
  24. Somali (E. Africa), (77) (80) (81)
  25. Soudanese languages, (84) (154) (155) (163)
  26. Sound-imitative words, (4) (5) (6) (80)
  27. Sounds of speech, (24)
    1. adjustments involved in, muscular, (46)
    2. adjustments involved in certain, inhibition of, (46) (47)
    3. basic importance of, (43)
    4. classification of, (54) (54)
    5. combinations of, (56)
    6. conditioned appearance of, (56) (57)
    7. dynamics of, (55) (56)
    8. illusory feelings in regard to, (43-5)
    9. “inner” or “ideal” system of, (57) (58)
    10. place in phonetic pattern of, (194-6)
    11. production of, (47-54)
    12. values of, psychological, (56-8)
    13. variability of, (45) (46)
  28. Spanish, (137)
  29. Speech. See Language.
  30. Spirants, (52)
  31. Splitting of sounds, (193) (195)
  32. Stem, (26)
  33. Stock, linguistic, (163-5) (218) (221)
  34. Stopped consonants (or stops), (52)
  35. Stress. See Accent.
  36. Structure, linguistic, (127-56)
    1. conservatism of, (200)
    2. differences of, (127) (128)
    3. intuitional forms of, (153) (154)
  37. Structure, linguistic, types of:
    1. classification of, by character of concepts, (143-7)
    2. by degree of fusion, (136-43)
    3. by degree of synthesis, (135) (136)
    4. by formal processes, (133-5)
    5. from threefold standpoint, (147-9) (154)
    6. into “formal” and “formless,” (132) (133)
    7. classifying, difficulties in, (129-32) (149)
    8. examples of, (149-51)
    9. mixed, (148)
    10. reality of, (128) (129) (149) (152) (153)
    11. validity of conceptual, historical test of, (152-6)
  38. Style, (38) (216) (242-4)
  39. Subject, (92) (98)
    1. See Personal relations.
  40. Subject of discourse, (37) (126)
  41. Suffixes, (26) (64)
  42. Suffixing, (61) (70) (71-5)
  43. Suffixing languages, (134) (135)
  44. Survivals, morphological, (149) (152) (202) (218) (219)
  45. Swedish, (55) (110) (175)
  46. Swinburne, (238) (240)
  47. Swiss, French, (225)
  48. Syllabifying, (56)
  49. Symbolic languages, (133) (134) (147) (150) (151)
  50. Symbolic processes, (134) (138) (139) (140)
  51. Symbolic-fusional, (151)
  52. Symbolic-isolating, (148)
  53. Symons, (245)
  54. Syntactic adhesions, (117) (118)
  55. Syntactic relations:
    1. primary methods of expressing, (119) (120)
    2. transfer of values in, (120)
    3. See Concepts, relational; Concord; Order, word; Personal relations; Sentence.
  56. Synthetic tendency, (69) (135) (136) (137) (148) (150) (151) (154)