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Title: Lichens
Author: Annie Lorrain Smith
Release date: March 14, 2020 [eBook #61616]
Most recently updated: October 17, 2024
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LICHENS ***
Cambridge Botanical Handbooks
Edited by A. C. Seward and A. G. Tansley
LICHENS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
C. F. CLAY, Manager
LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C.4
LONDON: H. K. LEWIS AND CO., Ltd.,
136, Gower Street, W.C.1
LONDON: WHELDON & WESLEY, Ltd.,
28, Essex Street, Strand, W.C.2
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.
| BOMBAY | } | MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. |
| CALCUTTA | } | |
| MADRAS | } |
TORONTO: THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
LICHENS
BY
ANNIE LORRAIN SMITH, F.L.S.
ACTING ASSISTANT, BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM
CAMBRIDGE:
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1921
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
PREFACE
The publication of this volume has been delayed owing to war conditions, but the delay is the less to be regretted in that it has allowed the inclusion of recent work on the subject. Much of the subject-matter is of common knowledge to lichenologists, but in the co-ordination and arrangement of the facts the original papers are cited throughout. The method has somewhat burdened the pages with citations, but it is hoped that, as a book of reference, its value has been enhanced thereby. The Glossary includes terms used in lichenology, or those with a special lichenological meaning. The Bibliography refers only to works consulted in the preparation of this volume. To save space, etc., the titles of books and papers quoted in the text are generally translated and curtailed: full citations will be found in the Bibliography. Subject-matter has been omitted from the index: references of importance will be found in the Table of Contents or in the Glossary.
I would record my thanks to those who have generously helped me during the preparation of the volume: to Lady Muriel Percy for taking notes of spore production, and to Dr Cavers for the loan of reprints. Prof. Potter and Dr Somerville Hastings placed at my disposal their photographs of the living plants. Free use has been made of published text-figures which are duly acknowledged.
I have throughout had the inestimable advantage of being able to consult freely the library and herbarium of the British Museum, and have thus been able to verify references to plants as well as to literature. A special debt of gratitude is due to my colleagues Mr Gepp and Mr Ramsbottom for their unfailing assistance and advice.
A. L. S.
London, February, 1920
CONTENTS
| PAGE | |
| Glossary | xix |
| Errata | xxii |
| Introduction | xxiii |
| CHAPTER I HISTORY OF LICHENOLOGY |
|
| A. Introductory | 1 |
| B. Period I. Previous to 1694 | 2 |
| C. Period II. 1694-1729 | 5 |
| D. Period III. 1729-1780 | 6 |
| E. Period IV. 1780-1803 | 9 |
| F. Period V. 1803-1846 | 10 |
| G. Period VI. 1846-1867 | 15 |
| H. Period VII. 1867 and after | 18 |
| CHAPTER II CONSTITUENTS OF THE LICHEN THALLUS |
|
| I. LICHEN GONIDIA | |
| 1. GONIDIA IN RELATION TO THE THALLUS | |
| A. Historical account of Lichen Gonidia | 21 |
| B. Gonidia contrasted with Algae | 22 |
| C. Culture Experiments with the Lichen Thallus | 24 |
| D. Theories as to the Origin of Gonidia | 25 |
| E. Microgonidia | 26 |
| F. Composite Nature of Thallus | 27 |
| G. Synthetic Cultures | 27 |
| H. Hymenial Gonidia | 30 |
| I. Nature of Association between Alga and Fungus | 31 |
| a. Consortium and symbiosis | |
| b. Different forms of association | |
| J. Recent views on Symbiosis and Parasitism | 36 |
| 2. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SYMBIONTS | |
| A. Nutrition of Lichen Algae | 39 |
| a. Character of algal cells | |
| b. Supply of nitrogen | |
| c. Effect on the alga | |
| d. Supply of carbon | |
| e. Nutrition within the symbiotic plant | |
| f. Affinities of lichen gonidia | |
| B. Nutrition of Lichen Fungi | 44 |
| C. Symbiosis of other Plants | 45 |
| II. LICHEN HYPHAE | |
| A. Origin of Hyphae | 46 |
| B. Development of Lichenoid Hyphae | 47 |
| C. Culture of Hyphae Without Gonidia | 49 |
| D. Continuity of Protoplasm in Hyphal Cells | 51 |
| III. LICHEN ALGAE | |
| A. Types of Algae | 51 |
| a. Myxophyceae associated with Phycolichens | |
| b. Chlorophyceae associated with Archilichens | |
| B. Changes induced in the Alga | 60 |
| a. Myxophyceae | |
| b. Chlorophyceae | |
| C. Constancy of Algal Constituents | 63 |
| D. Displacement of Algae Within the Thallus | 64 |
| a. Normal displacement | |
| b. Local displacement | |
| E. Non-gonidial Organisms associated with Lichen Hyphae | 65 |
| F. Parasitism of Algae on Lichens | 65 |
| CHAPTER III MORPHOLOGY |
|
| I. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF LICHEN STRUCTURE | |
| ORIGIN OF LICHEN STRUCTURES | |
| A. Forms of Cell-Structure | 67 |
| B. Types of Thallus | 68 |
| a. Endogenous thallus | |
| b. Exogenous thallus | |
| II. STRATOSE THALLUS | |
| 1. CRUSTACEOUS LICHENS | |
| A. General Structure | 70 |
| B. Saxicolous Lichens | 70 |
| a. Epilithic lichens | |
| aa. Hypothallus or protothallus | |
| bb. Formation of crustaceous tissues | |
| cc. Formation of areolae | |
| b. Endolithic lichens | |
| c. Chemical nature of the substratum | |
| C. Corticolous Lichens | 77 |
| a. Epiphloeodal lichens | |
| b. Hypophloeodal lichens | |
| 2. SQUAMULOSE LICHENS | |
| A. Development of the Squamule | 79 |
| B. Tissues of Squamulose Thallus | 81 |
| 3. FOLIOSE LICHENS | |
| A. Development of foliose Thallus | 82 |
| B. Cortical Tissues | 82 |
| a. Types of cortical structure | |
| b. Origin of variation in cortical structure | |
| c. Loss and renewal of cortex | |
| d. Cortical hairs | |
| C. Gonidial Tissues | 87 |
| D. Medulla and Lower Cortex | 88 |
| a. Medulla | |
| b. Lower cortex | |
| c. Hypothallic structures | |
| E. Structures for Protection and Attachment | 91 |
| a. Cilia | |
| b. Rhizinae | |
| c. Haptera | |
| F. Strengthening Tissues of Stratose Lichens | 95 |
| a. Produced by development of cortex | |
| b. Produced by development of veins or nerves | |
| III. RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 1. CHARACTERS OF RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 2. INTERMEDIATE TYPES OF THALLUS | |
| 3. FRUTICOSE AND FILAMENTOUS THALLUS | |
| A. General Structure of Thallus | 101 |
| Cortical Structures | |
| a. The fastigiate cortex | |
| b. The fibrous cortex | |
| B. Special strengthening Structures | 103 |
| a. Sclerotic strands | |
| b. Chondroid axis | |
| C. Survey of Mechanical Tissues | 105 |
| D. Reticulate Fronds | 106 |
| E. Rooting Base in Fruticose Lichens | 108 |
| IV. STRATOSE-RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 1. STRATOSE OR PRIMARY THALLUS | |
| A. General Characteristics | 111 |
| B. Tissues of Primary Thallus | 112 |
| a. Cortical tissue | |
| b. Gonidial tissue | |
| c. Medullary tissue | |
| d. Soredia | |
| 2. RADIATE OR SECONDARY THALLUS | |
| A. Origin of the Podetium | 114 |
| B. Structure of the Podetium | 114 |
| a. General structure | |
| b. Gonidial tissue | |
| c. Cortical tissue | |
| d. Soredia | |
| C. Development of the Scyphus | 117 |
| a. From abortive apothecia | |
| b. From polytomous branching | |
| c. From arrested growth | |
| d. Gonidia of the scyphus | |
| e. Species without scyphi | |
| D. Branching of the Podetium | 119 |
| E. Perforations and Reticulation of the Podetium | 120 |
| F. Rooting Structures of Cladoniae | 121 |
| G. Haptera | 122 |
| H. Morphology of the Podetium | 122 |
| I. Pilophorus and Stereocaulon | 125 |
| V. STRUCTURES PECULIAR TO LICHENS | |
| 1. AERATION STRUCTURES | |
| A. Cyphellae and Pseudocyphellae | 126 |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Development of cyphellae | |
| c. Pseudocyphellae | |
| d. Occurrence and distribution | |
| B. Breathing-Pores | 129 |
| a. Definite breathing-pores | |
| b. Other openings in the thallus | |
| C. General Aeration of the Thallus | 132 |
| 2. CEPHALODIA | |
| A. Historical and Descriptive | 133 |
| B. Classification | 135 |
| I. CEPHALODIA VERA | |
| II. PSEUDOCEPHALODIA | |
| C. Algae that form Cephalodia | 136 |
| D. Development of Cephalodia | 137 |
| a. Ectotrophic | |
| b. Endotrophic | |
| c. Pseudocephalodia | |
| E. Autosymbiotic Cephalodia | 140 |
| 3. SOREDIA | |
| A. Structure and Origin of Soredia | 141 |
| a. Scattered soredia | |
| b. Isidial soredia | |
| c. Soredia as buds | |
| B. Soralia | 144 |
| a. Form and occurrence of soralia | |
| b. Position of soraliferous lobes | |
| c. Deep-seated soralia | |
| C. Dispersal and Germination of Soredia | 147 |
| D. Evolution of Soredia | 148 |
| 4. ISIDIA | |
| A. Form and Structure of Isidia | 149 |
| B. Origin and Function of Isidia | 151 |
| VI. HYMENOLICHENS | |
| A. Affinity with other Plants | 152 |
| B. Structure of Thallus | 153 |
| C. Sporiferous Tissues | 154 |
| CHAPTER IV REPRODUCTION |
|
| I. REPRODUCTION BY ASCOSPORES | |
| A. Historical Survey | 155 |
| B. Forms of Reproductive Organs | 156 |
| a. Apothecia | |
| b. Perithecia | |
| C. Development of Reproductive Organs | 159 |
| 1. DISCOLICHENS | |
| a. Carpogonia of gelatinous lichens | |
| b. Carpogonia of non-gelatinous lichens | |
| c. General summary | |
| d. Hypothecium and paraphyses | |
| e. Variations in apothecial development | |
| aa. Parmeliae | |
| bb. Pertusariae | |
| cc. Graphideae | |
| dd. Cladoniae | |
| 2. PYRENOLICHENS | |
| a. Development of the perithecium | |
| b. Formation of carpogonia | |
| D. Apogamous Reproduction | 174 |
| E. Discussion of Lichen Reproduction | 177 |
| a. The Trichogyne | |
| b. The Ascogonium | |
| F. Final Stages of Apothecial Development | 181 |
| a. Open or closed apothecia | |
| b. Emergence of ascocarp | |
| G. Lichen Asci and Spores | 184 |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Development of the ascus | |
| c. Development of the spores | |
| d. Spore germination | |
| e. Multinucleate spores | |
| f. Polaribilocular spores | |
| II. SECONDARY SPORES | |
| A. Reproduction by Oidia | 189 |
| B. Reproduction by Conidia | 190 |
| a. Rare instances of conidial formation | |
| b. Comparison with Hyphomycetes | |
| C. Campylidium and Orthidium | 191 |
| III. SPERMOGONIA OR PYCNIDIA | |
| A. Historical Account of Spermogonia | 192 |
| B. Spermogonia as Male Organs | 193 |
| C. Occurrence and Distribution | 193 |
| a. Relation to thallus and apothecia | |
| b. Form and size | |
| c. Colour | |
| D. Structure | 196 |
| a. Origin and growth | |
| b. Form and types of spermatiophores | |
| c. Periphyses and sterile filaments | |
| E. Spermatia or Pycnidiospores | 201 |
| a. Origin and form | |
| b. Size and structure | |
| c. Germination | |
| d. Variation in pycnidia | |
| F. Pycnidia with Macrospores | 204 |
| G. General Survey | 205 |
| a. Sexual or asexual | |
| b. Comparison with fungi | |
| c. Influence of symbiosis | |
| d. Value in diagnosis | |
| CHAPTER V PHYSIOLOGY |
|
| I. CELLS AND CELL PRODUCTS | |
| A. Cell-membranes | 209 |
| a. Chitin | |
| b. Lichenin and allied carbohydrates | |
| c. Cellulose | |
| B. Contents and Products of the Fungal Cells | 213 |
| a. Cell-substances | |
| b. Calcium Oxalate | |
| c. Importance of calcium oxalate | |
| C. Oil-cells | 215 |
| a. Oil-cells of endolithic lichens | |
| b. Oil-cells of epilithic lichens | |
| c. Significance of oil-formation | |
| D. Lichen-acids | 221 |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Occurrence and examination of acids | |
| c. Character of acids | |
| d. Causes of variation in quantity and quality | |
| e. Distribution of acids | |
| E. Chemical grouping of acids | 225 |
| I. ACIDS OF THE FAT SERIES | |
| II. ACIDS OF THE BENZOLE SERIES | |
| Subseries I. Orcine derivatives | |
| Subseries II. Anthracene derivatives | |
| F. Chemical Reagents as Tests for Lichens | 228 |
| G. Chemical Reactions in Nature | 229 |
| II. GENERAL NUTRITION | |
| A. Absorption of Water | 229 |
| a. Gelatinous lichens | |
| b. Crustaceous lichens | |
| c. Foliose lichens | |
| d. Fruticose lichens | |
| B. Storage of Water | 232 |
| C. Supply of Inorganic Food | 232 |
| a. In foliose and fruticose lichens | |
| b. In crustaceous lichens | |
| D. Supply of Organic Food | 235 |
| a. From the substratum | |
| b. From other lichens | |
| c. From other vegetation | |
| III. ASSIMILATION AND RESPIRATION | |
| A. Influence of Temperature | 238 |
| a. High temperature | |
| b. Low temperature | |
| B. Influence of Moisture | 239 |
| a. On vital functions | |
| b. On general development | |
| IV. ILLUMINATION OF LICHENS | |
| A. Effect of Light on the Thallus | 240 |
| a. Sun lichens | |
| b. Colour-changes due to light | |
| c. Shade lichens | |
| d. Varying shade conditions | |
| B. Effect of Light on Reproductive Organs | 244 |
| a. Position and orientation of fruits with regard to light | |
| b. Influence of light on colour of fruits | |
| V. COLOUR OF LICHENS | |
| A. Origin of Lichen-Colouring | 245 |
| a. Colour given by the algal constituent | |
| b. Colour due to lichen-acids | |
| c. Colour due to amorphous substances | |
| d. Enumeration of amorphous pigments | |
| e. Colour due to infiltration | |
| CHAPTER VI BIONOMICS |
|
| A. Growth and Duration of Lichens | 252 |
| B. Season of Fruit Formation | 255 |
| C. Dispersal and Increase | 256 |
| a. Dispersal of crustaceous lichens | |
| b. Dispersal of foliose lichens | |
| c. Dispersal of fruticose lichens | |
| D. Erratic Lichens | 258 |
| E. Parasitism | 260 |
| a. General statement | |
| b. Antagonistic symbiosis | |
| c. Parasymbiosis | |
| d. Parasymbiosis of fungi | |
| e. Fungi parasitic on lichens | |
| f. Mycetozoa parasitic on lichens | |
| F. Diseases of Lichens | 268 |
| a. Caused by parasitism | |
| b. Caused by crowding | |
| c. Caused by adverse conditions | |
| G. Harmful Effect of Lichens | 269 |
| H. Gall-Formation | 270 |
| CHAPTER VII PHYLOGENY |
|
| I. GENERAL STATEMENT | |
| A. Origin of Lichens | 272 |
| B. Algal Ancestors | 273 |
| C. Fungal Ancestors | 273 |
| a. Basidiolichens | |
| b. Ascolichens | |
| II. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS | |
| A. Theories of Descent in Ascolichens | 273 |
| B. Relation of Lichens to Fungi | 275 |
| a. Pyrenocarpineae | |
| b. Coniocarpineae | |
| c. Graphidineae | |
| d. Cyclocarpineae | |
| III. THE THALLUS | |
| A. General Outline of Development of Thallus | 281 |
| a. Preliminary considerations | |
| b. Course of evolution in Hymenolichens | |
| c. Course of evolution in Ascolichens | |
| B. Comparative Antiquity of Algal Symbionts | 282 |
| C. Evolution of Phycolichens | 283 |
| a. Gloeolichens | |
| b. Ephebaceae and Collemaceae | |
| c. Pyrenidiaceae | |
| d. Heppiaceae and Pannariaceae | |
| e. Peltigeraceae and Stictaceae | |
| D. Evolution of Archilichens | 287 |
| a. Thallus of Pyrenocarpineae | |
| b. Thallus of Coniocarpineae | |
| c. Thallus of Graphidineae | |
| d. Thallus of Cyclocarpineae | |
| AA. LECIDEALES | |
| aa. Coenogoniaceae | |
| bb. Lecideaceae and Gyrophoraceae | |
| cc. Cladoniaceae | |
| 1. Origin of Cladonia | |
| 2. Evolution of the primary thallus | |
| 3. Evolution of the secondary thallus | |
| 4. Course of podetial development | |
| 5. Variation in Cladonia | |
| 6. Causes of variation | |
| 7. Podetial development and spore-dissemination | |
| 8. Pilophorus, Stereocaulon and Argopsis | |
| BB. LECANORALES | |
| aa. Course of Development | |
| bb. Lecanoraceae | |
| cc. Parmeliaceae | |
| dd. Usneaceae | |
| ee. Physciaceae | |
| CHAPTER VIII SYSTEMATIC |
|
| I. CLASSIFICATION | |
| A. Work of Successive Systematists | 304 |
| a. Dillenius and Linnaeus | |
| b. Acharius | |
| c. Schaerer | |
| d. Massalongo and Koerber | |
| e. Nylander | |
| f. Müller-Argau | |
| g. Reinke | |
| h. Zahlbruckner | |
| B. Families and Genera of Ascolichens | 311 |
| C. Hymenolichens | 342 |
| II. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION | |
| 1. ESTIMATES OF NUMBER | |
| 2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION | |
| A. General Survey | 343 |
| B. Lichens of Polar Regions | 345 |
| C. Lichens of the Temperate Zones | 348 |
| D. Lichens of Tropical Regions | 352 |
| III. FOSSIL LICHENS | |
| CHAPTER IX ECOLOGY |
|
| A. General Introduction | 356 |
| B. External Influences | 357 |
| a. Temperature | |
| b. Humidity | |
| c. Wind | |
| d. Human Agency | |
| C. Lichen Communities | 362 |
| 1. ARBOREAL | 363 |
| a. Epiphyllous | |
| b. Corticolous | |
| c. Lignicolous | |
| 2. TERRICOLOUS | 367 |
| a. On calcareous soil | |
| b. On siliceous soil | |
| c. On bricks | |
| d. On humus | |
| e. On peaty soil | |
| f. On mosses | |
| g. On fungi | |
| 3. SAXICOLOUS | 371 |
| a. Characters of mineral substrata | |
| b. Colonization on rocks | |
| c. Calcicolous | |
| d. Silicicolous | |
| 4. OMNICOLOUS LICHENS | 376 |
| 5. LOCALIZED COMMUNITIES | 378 |
| a. Maritime lichens | |
| b. Sand-dune lichens | |
| c. Mountain lichens | |
| d. Tundra lichens | |
| e. Desert lichens | |
| f. Aquatic lichens | |
| D. Lichens as Pioneers | 392 |
| a. Soil-formers | |
| b. Outposts of vegetation | |
| CHAPTER X ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL |
|
| A. Lichens as Food | 395 |
| a. Food for insects | |
| b. Insect mimicry of lichens | |
| c. Food for the higher animals | |
| d. Food for man | |
| B. Lichens as Medicine | 405 |
| a. Ancient remedies | |
| b. Doctrine of “signatures” | |
| c. Cure for hydrophobia | |
| d. Popular remedies | |
| C. Lichens as Poisons | 410 |
| D. Lichens used in Tanning, Brewing and Distilling | 411 |
| E. Dyeing Properties of Lichens | 411 |
| a. Lichens as dye-plants | |
| b. The orchil lichen, Roccella | |
| c. Purple dyes: orchil, cudbear and litmus | |
| d. Other orchil lichens | |
| e. Preparation of orchil | |
| f. Brown and yellow dyes | |
| g. Collecting of dye-lichens | |
| h. Lichen colours and spectrum characters | |
| F. Lichens in Perfumery | 418 |
| a. Lichens as perfumes | |
| b. Lichens as hair-powder | |
| G. Some minor Uses of Lichens | 420 |
| Appendix | 421 |
| Addendum | 422 |
| Bibliography | 423 |
| Index | 448 |