1177. A palisade is a man-tight fence of posts. Round poles 4 to 6 inches in diameter at the large end are best. If the sticks run 5 to 8 inches, they may be split. If defended from the rear, palisades give some shelter from fire and the openings should be made as large as possible without letting men through. If defended from the flank, they may be closer, say 3 to 4 inches apart. The top should be pointed. A strand or two of barbed wire run along the top and stapled to each post is a valuable addition.
Palisading is best made up in panels of 6 or 8 feet length, connected by a waling piece, preferably of plank, otherwise of split stuff. If the tops are free, two wales should be used, both underground. If the tops are connected by wires, one will do.
Palisades should be planted to incline slightly to the front. As little earth should be disturbed in digging as possible, and one side of the trench should be kept in the desired plane of the palisade. If stones can be had to fit between the posts and the top of the trench, they will increase the stiffness of the structure and save time in ramming, or a small log may be laid in the trench along the outside of the posts. Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction and placing of palisades.
1178. A fraise is a palisade horizontal, or nearly so, projecting from the scarp or counterscarp. A modern and better form consists of supports at 3 or 4 feet interval, connected by barbed wire, forming a horizontal wire fence. Fig. 5.
1179. Cheveaux de frise are obstacles of the form shown in Fig. 6. They are usually made in sections of manageable length chained together at the ends. They are most useful in closing roads or other narrow passages, as they can be quickly opened for friendly troops. The lances may be of iron instead of wood and rectangular instead of round; the axial beam may be solid or composite. Figs. 8 and 9 show methods of constructing cheveaux de frise with dimension stuff.
1180. A formidable obstacle against cavalry consists of railroad ties planted at intervals of 10 feet with the tops 41/2 feet above the ground, and connected by a line of rails spiked securely to each, Fig. 7. The rail ends should be connected by fish plates and bolted, with the ends of the bolts riveted down on the ends.
Figs. 10 and 11 show forms of heavy obstacles employed in Manchuria by the Russians and Japanese, respectively. The former is composed of timber trestles, made in rear and carried out at night. The latter appears to have been planted in place.
1181. A wire entanglement is composed of stakes driven in the ground and connected by wire, barbed is the best, passing horizontally or diagonally, or both. The stakes are roughly in rectangular or quincunx order, but slight irregularities, both of position and height should be introduced.
In the high entanglement the stakes average 4 feet from the ground, and the wiring is horizontal and diagonal, Fig. 12.
High wire entanglement showing method of linking posts head to foot and foot to head. Wire, plain or barbed, then festooned with barbed wire. Bind wires where they cross. Use broken bottles, crows feet, planks with spikes or fishhooks in conjunction with this entanglement. (From Knowledge of War—Lake.)
The low wire entanglement has stakes averaging 18 inches above the ground and the wire is horizontal only. This form is especially effective if concealed in high grass. In both kinds the wires should be wound around the stakes and stapled and passed loosely from one stake to the next. When two or more wires cross they should be tied together. Barbed wire is more difficult to string but better when done. The most practicable form results from the use of barbed wire for the horizontal strands and smooth wire for the rest.
This is the most generally, useful of all obstacles because of the rapidity of construction, the difficulty of removal, the comparatively slight injury from artillery fire, and its independence of local material supplies.
1182. Time and materials. One man can make 10 sq. yds. of low and 3 sq. yds. of high entanglement per hour. The low form requires 10 feet of wire per sq. yd. and the high 30 feet. No. 14 is a suitable size. The smooth wire runs 58.9 ft. to the lb. A 100-lb. coil will make 600 sq. yds. of low or 200 sq. yds. of high entanglement. If barbed wire is used, the weight will be about 21/2 times as much.
1183. Wire fence. An ordinary barbed-wire fence is a considerable obstacle if well swept by fire. It becomes more formidable if a ditch is dug on one or both sides to obstruct the passage of wheels after the fence has been cut. The fence is much more difficult to get through if provided with an apron on one or both sides, inclined at an angle of about 45°, as indicated in Figs. 13 and 14. This form was much used in South Africa for connecting lines between blockhouses. When used in this way the lines of fence may be 300 to 600 yds. long, in plan like a worm fence, with the blockhouse at the reëntrant angles. Fixed rests for rifles, giving them the proper aim to enfilade the fence, were prepared at the blockhouses for use at night.
| Fig. 13 | Fig. 14 |
Such a fence may be arranged in many ways to give an automatic alarm either mechanically or electrically. The mechanical forms mostly depend on one or more single wires which are smooth, and are tightly stretched through staples on the posts which hold them loosely, permitting them to slip when cut and drop a counterweight at the blockhouse, which in falling explodes a cap or pulls the trigger of a rifle.
1184. Military pits or trous de loup are excavations in the shape of an inverted cone or pyramid, with a pointed stake in the bottom. They should not be so deep as to afford cover to the skirmisher. Two and one-half feet or less is a suitable depth. Fig. 15 shows a plan and section of such pits.
| Fig. 15 | Fig. 16 |
They are usually dug in 3 or 5 rows and the earth thrown to the front to form a glacis. The rear row is dug first and then the next in front, and so on, so that no earth is cast over the finished pits.
An excellent arrangement is to dig the pits in a checkerboard plan, leaving alternate squares and placing a stake in each of them to form a wire entanglement, Fig. 16. One man can make 5 pits on a 2-hour relief.
1185. Miscellaneous barricades. Anything rigid in form and movable may be used to give cover from view and fire and to obstruct the advance of an assailant. Boxes, bales and sacks of goods, furniture, books, etc., have been so used. The principles above stated for other obstacles should be followed, so far as the character of the materials will permit. The rest ingenuity must supply. Such devices are usually called barricades and are useful in blocking the streets of towns and cities.
1186. Inundations. Backing up the water of a stream so that it overflows a considerable area forms a good obstacle even though of fordable depth. If shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water comes up or by driving stakes or making entanglements. Fords have frequently been obstructed by ordinary harrows laid on the bottom with the teeth up.
The unusual natural conditions necessary to a successful inundation and the extent and character of the work required to construct the dams make this defense of exceptional use. It may be attempted with advantage when the drainage of a considerable flat area passes through a restricted opening, as a natural gorge, a culvert, or a bridge.
Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones with gravel or earth may form the basis of the obstruction to the flow of water. The usual method of tightening cracks or spaces between cribs is by throwing in earth or alternate layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of clay. Unless the flow is enough to allow considerable leakage, the operation will not be practicable with field resources.
When the local conditions permit water to be run into the ditch of a parapet it should always be done.
1187. Obstacles in front of outguards should be low so they cannot be seen at night. A very simple and effective obstacle can be made by fastening a single strand of wire to the top of stout stakes about a foot high, and then placing another wire a little higher and parallel to, and about one yard in rear of, the first. The wires must be drawn tight, and securely fastened, and the stakes fairly close together, so that if the wire is cut between any two stakes the remainder will not be cut loose. Any one approaching the enemy will trip over the first wire, and before he can recover himself he will be brought down by the second. In the absence of wire, small sapplings may be used instead. Of course, they are not as good as wire, but it does not take much to trip up a man in the dark.
Lessons from the European War
What follows is based on reports from the battle fronts in Europe.
1188. Wire entanglements. The war in Europe has proven that the wire entanglements are the most important and effective obstacle yet devised. Owing to the intensity of the opposing fire and in many cases to the short distance between the opposing trenches, it has become necessary to construct all forms of obstacles in portable sections which are carried or rolled quickly into place, either by soldiers rushing out in day light and quickly staking the obstacles down or by placing the obstacles quietly at night.
For placing wire entanglements at night, an iron post has been devised about 1/4 of an inch in diameter, with eyelets for attaching the wire. The lower 18 inches is made as an auger, so that the posts can be quietly screwed into the ground at night and the wire attached. Another method of placing wire entanglements is to make them in sections and roll them up. These sections are usually about 20 feet long, the wire firmly fastened to the sharpened stakes. At a favorable moment the soldiers rush out, unrolling the sections as they go and with mauls quickly drive the stakes. Loose ends of wire enable the sections to be bound together as placed.
Another form of wire entanglement is shown in (Fig. 18). Triangular pyramids 3 feet 6 inches high are made of poles or timber. The pyramids are usually arranged in pairs with the wire on three faces so that, no matter if the obstacle is rolled over, a wire fence is presented. These obstacles are carried out and placed so as to break joints and are staked down as soon as possible.
The wire used for entanglements is found more convenient to handle when wound on a stake a yard in length, in a sort of figure eight winding. Special barbed wire of heavier material and barbs placed close together has been found much more effective than the commercial barbed wire.
In some localities electrified wire has been used. In such cases the obstacle is charged in sections, so that, if one section is grounded it will not affect the others.
1189. Wire cheveaux de frise. Two forms of this obstacle have appeared. Both are portable. They consist of two or more wooden crosses fastened at their centers to a long pole and connected with each other by barbed wire. This obstacle retains its effectiveness when rolled over. (Figs. 19 and 20) give an idea of their construction. The form shown in (Fig. 19) is often made small enough for individuals to carry. These are prepared in the trenches and used for throwing into one's own entanglements to make them more complex or may be carried when making an assault and thrown into the enemy's trenches to prevent movements from one part of the trench to another. The long stick projects out of the end to be used as a handle.
1190. Guarding obstacles. It has been found necessary to keep a constant watch over obstacles after they have been placed.
1191. Listening posts. One of the best methods is to post one or more men in listening posts in or beyond the line of obstacles. These listening posts are rifle pits with over head cover, fully protected from fire from the rear as well as front, and loop holes for observation and fire. They are connected with the fire trenches by means of a covered communication or even tunnels in some cases and are provided with some form of prompt communication with the firing trenches by telephone, bell or other means. The communicating trench or tunnel is provided with a strong door which may be closed to prevent an enemy from securing access to the fire trench, in case the lookout is surprised. Pits with trap doors are also used to prevent an enemy from creeping up the tunnel to the fire trench.
These lookouts can give early warning of the approach of an enemy, either for the purpose of assault or cutting through the obstacles. In many instances they have detected mining operations of the enemy by hearing the blows of picks under ground.
1192. Automatic alarms. Many automatic alarms have been used to give warning of attack on the obstacles. These vary from the simple setting of a pistol or rifle, which is fired when the enemy attempts to cut through the entanglement, to intricate electrical alarms.
1193. Searchlights. Searchlights have been provided so that, the instant an alarm is given the obstacles are flooded by a brilliant light and the enemy exposed to fire.
CHAPTER XII
TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE[14]
1194. Asphyxiating gases. The asphyxiating gases employed may be divided into three general classes, viz:
Suffocating gases, the most common of which are carbonic and nitrogen.
Poisonous gases, under which head come carbon monoxide and cyanogen.
Gases which affect the throat and bronchial tubes, such as chlorine and bromine. The latter class is most commonly employed.
The methods usually employed for liberating these gases are to have a plant some distance in rear of the trenches where the gas is stored under pressure and carried to the trenches through pipes, where it can be liberated towards the enemy's trenches when there is a favorable wind to carry it along; or, the gas may be carried in cylinders or other containers and liberated at the desired points. Hand grenades or bombs are also employed which, upon bursting, liberate the gas or in some cases scatter acids or caustic soda. Some of these bombs contain a chemical which when liberated affects the eyes, causing impaired vision. The Germans employ several kinds of shell containing gases of different densities, one of heavy gas fired as a curtain to the rear to permit reinforcement of the trenches and another of lighter gas to demolish the trenches and destroy the firing line. As a general rule these gases are employed when the fire trenches of the opposing forces are close together though the shell containers may be used at long ranges. All of these gases being heavier than air lie close to the ground and flow over and down into the trenches.
1195. Protection against gases. The best protection against these gases, is a mask of some kind. The commonest form employed is a flexible mask that conforms to the head, is fitted with glass for seeing through, and has an arrangement of tubes and valves which require the wearer to inhale through his nose and exhale through his mouth.
These masks have an absorbent composed of hyposulphite of sodium or of 72 per cent of the nitrous thiosulphate and 28 per cent of bicarbonate of soda. This absorbent placed so that air must be breathed through it, neutralizes the acids in the gases. Soldiers are provided with these masks, sometimes with two of them, and are required to have them renewed every three months.
Trench sprays may be used to spray neutralizing liquid in the trenches to kill the gases.
The favorable conditions for the employment of gases are wind blowing toward the enemy's trenches and warm weather. Unfavorable conditions are rain, cold, and adverse winds.
In some localities weather vanes placed in the direction of the enemy's trenches and arranged so that they may be watched at night give an indication of favorable winds and enable the defender to prepare for a gas attack.
Before the masks were provided bonfires were prepared of oil soaked materials which; when ignited, produced an intense heat and the resulting column of air diverted the gas clouds.
1196. Liquid fire. By use of hand or motor driven pumps, and a light grade of petroleum, columns of liquid fire may be squirted into the opposing trenches. If the oil should fail to remain lighted it may be fired by bursting hand grenades or throwing fire balls into the trenches. This means of attack is employed when opposing trenches are close together.
As a defense measure ditches may be dug in front of the trenches and filled with a porous material which is then soaked with oil. Heavy oils, being hard to ignite, are not dangerous to the defense, and will remain with little loss for a long time. To make sure of prompt ignition gas lines are laid in the ditches. When turned on the gas readily ignites and the resulting fire produces great heat. Wire or barbed wire looped in the ditches and staked down makes this a formidable obstacle.
1197. Grenades and bombs are containers, designed to be thrown by hand, by a sling, fired as a rocket or from specially constructed mortars, or dropped from aerial craft. They burst by time or percussion fuses and may be improvised in a variety of forms and are most useful in close attack or defense. Their effect is local but they are very demoralizing to men's nerves.
1198. Hand grenades are designed to be thrown by the hand and vary greatly in construction. In general, however, they consist of a container filled with bullets or pieces of iron or other metal in the center of which is a charge of high explosive which scatters the bullets or fragments with deadly effect. The three methods of discharging a hand grenade are:
By time fuse which is lighted by hand. About 5 to 9 seconds is the time from ignition until the grenade bursts. This does not give the defender time to pick up the bomb and throw it out of the trench.
By friction primer and fuse. In this form of hand grenade a strap on the wrist with a short line attached with a hook on the end of it serves, when the hook is engaged in the ring of the grenade, to jerk the primer when the grenade is thrown. This automatically ignites the fuse which bursts the grenade in from 4 to 5 seconds.
By percussion. In this form of grenade the charge is fired when the grenade strikes the ground or object at which it is thrown. In this form of grenade a safety pin holds the plunger from the cap. When the grenade is to be thrown the safety pin is withdrawn.
As a general rule fuse burns at the rate of 1 inch in 1 and 1/4 seconds; however each lot of fuse should be tested.
Figs. 1 and 2 show two forms of improvised grenades. Common cans, such as preserved fruits and vegetables are shipped in commercially, make good containers. The usual weight of a hand grenade is about 11/2 pounds.
1199. Other methods of throwing grenades. Many grenades have been designed to be fired from the ordinary rifle. This grenade has a rod which is inserted in the barrel of the rifle. A special charge of powder is used in the cartridge from which the bullet has been withdrawn.
Common slings, catapults, and other devises have been frequently used.
1200. Aerial mines. (Fig. 3.) This form of grenade is very heavy, often weighing 200 pounds and is fired from a trench mortar.
1201. Winged torpedo. (Fig. 4.) This projectile is fitted with three winged vanes which steady its flight and greatly increase the accuracy. A rod fitted into its base enables it to be fired from a comparatively small trench, mortar. The torpedo weighs about 40 pounds and the mortar 200 pounds. The mortar, being light, can be carried from one part of the trench to another by two men.
The aerial mine and winged torpedo may be used effectively to beat down the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand bags and trenches, and cutting away wire entanglements and other obstacles. The winged torpedo having a greater range (500 yards) and being more accurate, is the more effective.
1202. Bombs from air-craft are some form of high explosive bomb which burst on striking. Another type of bomb used by aeroplanes consists of a container filled with steel darts. The bursting charge is fired by a fuse. The operator usually cuts the fuse so that the bomb will burst at a considerable altitude. The steel darts are scattered in all directions and have sufficient velocity to pass through a man or horse.
1203. Protection against hand grenades. (Fig. 5.) For protection against hand grenades and bombs a screen of wire netting may be erected in front of the trenches and arranged at such a slope that most of the grenades passing over the screen will clear the trench while those striking the netting will roll away from the trench. This protection is very satisfactory for communications, machine gun emplacements, etc., but, is of doubtful value in fire trenches as it does not permit an easy offensive by the defenders.
1204. Tanks. The so-called "tanks," first used by the British armies in the battle of the Somme in September, 1916, are in reality armored caterpillar tractors carrying machine guns and capable of traversing rough ground, smashing down trees and entanglements, and passing across the ground between the opposing trenches over the shell holes made by the opposing artillery.
The machinery, guns and crew are contained in an armored body and the two tractor belts extend to full length on either side, being so arranged that the tank can climb a steep slope. From the meager data obtainable it would appear that the tanks carry from 4 to 6 machine guns in armored projections built out from the sides. These are provided with revolving shields permitting two guns to fire in any direction at one time.
The principle of the tractor is similar to that of those manufactured in the United States and used commercially in reclamation work. The addition of the armored body and guns makes the "military tank."
These "tanks" have proven of great value in village fighting, by smashing down barricades and driving machine guns from their positions in cellars and houses. They have also been used with some success in destroying obstacles.
The power of these new engines may be judged from their ability to smash down trees six inches in diameter and by means of cables to uproot trees as large as 15 inches in diameter.
These "tanks" are proof against rifle and machine gun fire, but are unable to withstand even light artillery.
1205. Helmets. Steel helmets made their appearance in the European war in 1915, as a protection to the soldier's head against rifle, machine gun and shrapnel fire. So successful were they that they are being furnished to all troops on the battlefield. Already several millions have been supplied. Where heretofore head wounds accounted for over 20 per cent of the casualties in trench warfare, the percentage has been reduced by the wearing of helmets to about one half per cent. While the helmet does not afford complete protection against rifle and shrapnel fire, it has been found that hits result only in severe concussion, where before fatal wound resulted. These helmets are painted khaki color.
1206. Masks. Steel masks for sentinels and snipers have been adopted by the Germans. This mask covers the head and face with curved surfaces which deflect bullets. Small eye holes permit a clear view of the target and a small section is omitted in the lower right side to permit bringing the rifle against the cheek in firing.
1207. Periscopes. Periscopes have been universally adopted in trench warfare for observing the enemy while keeping completely under cover. It is a simple arrangement of two mirrors in a vertical tube. The upper reflects the image of the object to the lower mirror which in turn reflects it to the eye of the observer. By raising the top of the periscope above the parapet the soldier can watch the foreground while at the same time remaining completely concealed himself.
A more elaborate periscope for the control of artillery fire has a collapsible tube which may be extended and elevated to a height of 75 feet.
1208. Sniperscope. This is a combination of the periscope and rifle by means of which a soldier can aim and fire his piece at an object without exposing himself above the parapet.
1209. Aids to firing. Rifles laid in notched boards placed in the parapet may be sighted and prepared for night firing, or a wire stretched just outside of the loophole on which the barrel of the rifle can rest when in the proper firing position to cover certain points, enables the soldier to fire effectively at night when it is too dark to aim.
1210. Mining. Military mining consists of digging communications and chambers underground and placing therein charges of explosives and firing such charges. Mining is slow and restricted in its application and therefore this method of attack is used against very strong points of the enemy's line,—a salient, a building, or other point,—held in great force. The aim in mine warfare is to make a sudden breach in the enemy's trench, destroy the flanking supports which could be used to stop this breach and then to take the trench by assault and organize it for defense before the enemy's forces, disorganized from the explosion, can recover.
Sometimes mines are placed in front of the trenches and exploded electrically when the enemy reaches them in attempting an assault.
1211. Countermining. The enemy, when mining operations are suspected, runs out tunnels to meet the opposing mine. Sometimes listening galleries are driven underground and men posted to detect the sound of mining operations. Once the direction of the opposing tunnel is discovered a charge of explosive is laid across its approach and fired at a moment when it will cause the most damage.
FOOTNOTES:
[14] To those desiring to go into the subject of trench warfare in detail, the author would recommend "Trench Warfare," by himself. George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis.; $1.25.
CHAPTER XIII
MARCHES
(Based on Infantry Drill Regulations and Field Service Regulations)
1212. Marching principal occupation of troops in campaign. Marching constitutes the principal occupation of troops in campaign and is one of the causes of heaviest loss. This loss, however, may be materially reduced by proper training and by carrying out strictly the rules regulating the conduct of marches, especially the rules of march discipline.
1213. Physical training; hardening new troops. By systematic and progressive physical exercises and actual marching, Infantry can be accustomed to the fatigue of bearing arms and equipment.
With new or untrained troops, the process of hardening the men to this work must be gradual. It should begin with ten-minute periods of vigorous setting-up exercises three times a day to loosen and develop the muscles. One march should be made each day with full equipment, beginning with a distance of 2 or 3 miles and increasing the distance daily as the troops become hardened, until a full day's march under full equipment may be made without exhaustion.
1214. Long march not to be made with untrained troops. A long march should not be made with untrained troops. If a long distance must be covered in a few days, the first march should be short, the length being increased each succeeding day.
1215. A successful march. A successful march, whether in peace or war, is one that places the troops at their destination at the proper time and in the best possible physical condition. Therefore, every possible effort, by exercising care and judgment, and by enforcing march discipline, must be made by all officers and noncommissioned officers to have the troops reach their destination in good physical condition,—"ready for business."
Preparation
1216. The commander. The commander must give such instructions as will insure that the necessary preparations are made,—that the men and animals are in fit condition and that the men are properly equipped; that provision has been made for rations and ammunition; that the wagons are properly loaded; that the necessary arrangements have been made for caring for the sick, etc.
1217. Organization commanders. Every organization commander is responsible that such of the above requirements as apply to his organization are complied with.
1218. Filling canteens. It is an invariable rule that all canteens must be filled before the march begins.
Starting
1219. Time to start. When practicable, marches begin in the morning, ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals to feed, and the wagons or animals to be packed.
The time for reveille, if different from the usual hour, should be announced the evening before.
The exact hour for the start depends, of course, upon circumstances. However, as a rule, foot troops do not start before broad daylight; mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after broad daylight.
In order to avoid intense heat, especially in the tropics, and also, in the case of long marches, to avoid reaching destination after dark, an earlier start than usual must be made.
Both men and animals rest well in the early morning hours, and should not, therefore, have this rest interrupted unless there is some real necessity for it.
Starting at night or at an hour that will cause a part of the march to be made at night, should, if possible, be avoided, because of the difficulties and disadvantages of night marching.
Conduct of the march
1220. The rate of march. The rate of march varies with the length of march, kind of troops, equipment carried, size of command, condition of troops, state of the weather, condition of roads, and other circumstances. However, whatever the rate may be it should be uniform, that is most important, as there is nothing that will irritate and tire a command more than a varying, un-uniform rate of march.
The rate of march is regulated by the commander of the leading company or some one designated by him, who should give the matter special attention, the rate being checked from time to time by a watch.
On a march of several days' duration the position of companies is ordinarily changed daily, so that each in turn leads.
With trained troops, in commands of a regiment or less, marching over average roads, the rate should be from 23/4 to 3 miles per hour. With larger commands carrying full equipment, the rate will be from 2 to 21/2 miles per hour.
Assuming that the length of step of the average man is 30 inches, the following rate-of-march table is deduced:
| Steps per minute | Miles per hour |
|---|---|
| 35 (1/5) | 1 |
| 70 | 2 |
| 88 (in practice, 90) | 21/2 |
| 97 (in practice, 100) | 23/4 |
| 106 (in practice, 110) | 3 |
[Note. By remembering that 35 (1/5) steps per minute gives 1 mile per hour, the number of steps per minute necessary to give a rate of 2, 21/2, 23/4 and 3 miles per hour, is quickly and easily obtained by multiplying 35 (1/5) by these numbers.]
In hot, sultry weather, with the men carrying the full pack, the rate of march would naturally be considerably less than on a cool day, with the command not carrying the pack. It is most important that these and other considerations affecting the rate of march be constantly borne in mind by the officer in command of the column, who should indicate to the commander of the leading company the number of steps to be taken per minute. In indicating the number of steps to be taken per minute, it should be considered whether the men at the head of the leading company are the average, above the average, or below the average in height. A short man, for example, would probably have to take 100 steps a minute to keep up with a tall man walking at the rate of 90 steps per minute.
1221. Marching capacity. The average marching capacity of Infantry is about 15 miles a day, but in extensive operations, involving large bodies of troops, the average is about 12 miles a day. Small commands of seasoned Infantry marching on good roads in cool weather can average about 20 miles a day.
1222. Halts. A halt of 15 minutes should be made after the first half or three quarters of an hour of marching to enable the men to attend to the calls of nature and adjust their clothing. Judgment must be exercised in selecting the place for this halt; it should not be made in a village or other place where its object would be defeated.
After the first halt a halt of 10 minutes is made in each hour, that is, the troops march 50 minutes and then halt 10. Of course, the number and length of halts should be varied according to the weather, condition of the roads and the equipment carried by the men. In the tropics the best results are often obtained by marching 45 minutes and halting 15.
When the day's march will run well into the afternoon, a halt of about one hour should be made at noon and the men allowed to eat.
Places for long halts should be selected with care; woods, water and shade are desirable features. Arms are stacked and equipments removed.
Halts should not be made in or near towns or villages unless to procure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in column, details being sent for whatever is necessary.
In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be advisable in the case of long marches to halt for three or four hours during the hottest part of the day and finish the march in the late afternoon or early evening. As a general proposition, however, it is inadvisable to arrive at a strange place after nightfall or even late in the afternoon.
1223. Crossing bridges and fords. When a cause of delay,—for example, a damaged bridge,—is encountered, the troops in rear are notified of the minimum length of the delay; they then conduct themselves as at regular halts.
In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or other obstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of the troops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent check, units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are crossed at two or more places at the same time; in passing through short defiles the pace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once.
If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it then resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace, if necessary.
Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful examination is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful character, ice, etc., as the case may be.
Troops must never cross a bridge in cadence,—that is, the men must not be in step.
In fording a deep stream with a swift current, the men cross on as broad a front as possible, marching abreast and holding hands. They should not look at the water, but at the opposite shore. If the ford is wide enough, mounted troops may cross at the same time on the upstream side, thus breaking the force of the current.
Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the troops cross at several places at once.
1224. Straggling and elongation of column. The marching efficiency of an organization is judged by the amount of straggling and elongation of the column and the condition of the men at the end of the march.
An officer of each company marches in its rear to prevent undue elongation and straggling. If there be only one officer with a company, the first sergeant performs this duty.
No man should leave the ranks without permission. If necessary for a man to fall out on account of sickness, he should be given a permit to do so by the company commander or the officer at the rear of the company. This permit is presented to the surgeon, who will admit him to the ambulance, have him wait for the trains, or follow and rejoin his company at the first halt.
It is the duty of all officers and noncommissioned officers to prevent straggling and elongation of the column.
MISCELLANEOUS
1225. Forced marches. A forced march may be said to be a march of more than average length.
Forced marches seriously impair the fighting power of even the best troops, and should be undertaken only in cases of necessity.
Such marches are generally made by increasing the number of marching hours. For large columns of Infantry marching long distances, increase of pace is seldom of value.
1226. Night marches. While night marches are some times made in very hot weather to avoid the heat of the day, they are generally made for the purpose of surprising the enemy, escaping observation by aeroplane, or for securing a favorable position from which to attack the enemy at dawn.
Moonlight and good roads are favorable for night marches.
Precaution must be taken that the proper road is followed and that contact between units is maintained, men being stationed, if necessary, to mark changes of direction. If necessary, guides are secured and charged with the duty of following the right road. When, due to unfavorable conditions, units cannot be kept well closed, men will be placed at forks and crossings of roads, especially on very dark nights.
When in hostile territory, silence is maintained; articles of equipment are secured to prevent rattling, and smoking and talking are not permitted. Also, under certain conditions villages and farmhouses are avoided on account of warning given by dogs.
Night marches impair the efficiency of a command and are never undertaken without good reason.
1227. Compliments. As a rule, troops on the march pay no compliments; individuals salute when they address, or are addressed by, a superior officer.
1228. Protection on the march. Protection on the march is furnished by covering detachments known as advance guards, rear guards and flank guards.
1229. Fitting of shoes and care of feet. In view of the fact that the greater part of the Infantry soldier's occupation in the field consists of marching, too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of his paying special attention to the fitting of his shoes and the care of his feet.
An Infantryman with sore feet is like a lame duck trying to keep up with the rest of the flock.
Keep your feet clean. Dirty feet invite blisters. An excellent preventative against sore feet is to wash them every night in hot (preferably salt) water and then dry them thoroughly. If this is not practicable, then mop them every evening with a wet towel and invigorate the skin with a good rubbing.
Keep the nails cut close.
Rubbing the feet with hard soap, grease, or oil of any kind, and putting ordinary talcum powder in the shoes before starting on a march, are very good to prevent sore feet.
Blisters should be pricked and the water let out, but the skin must never be removed. Adhesive plaster on top of the blister will prevent the skin from being pulled off.
In case of sore or blistered feet, considerable relief can be obtained by rubbing them with tallow from a lighted candle and a little whiskey or alcohol in some other form, and putting the socks on at once.
A little alum in warm water is excellent for tender feet.
The old soldier has learned from long experience in marching, to turn his socks inside out before putting them on thus putting the smooth side next to his skin and possible seams or lumps next to the shoe. The thickness of the sock protects the skin and helps prevent blisters.
Under no circumstances should a soldier ever start on a march with a pair of new shoes.
Each soldier should have on hand at all times two pair of serviceable shoes well broken in.
Remember that it is much better to prevent sore feet by taking the precautions outlined above, than it is to have to treat your feet after they have become sore.