Mechanical Devices in the Home

CHAPTER XVII

Iceless Refrigerators; Water Coolers

124. Comparative Efficiency of Iceless Refrigerators. In some localities, where it is difficult to get ice often enough to pay for having a refrigerator, other devices have to be depended upon for keeping food cool. Except when cold running water can be used in coolers, they do not take the place of refrigerators, because they cannot maintain the low temperature of a good refrigerator. As a rule, the best of the makeshifts are about on a par with the poorer refrigerators. They are very useful in emergencies.

125. Iceless Refrigerator. One of these devices is called the iceless refrigerator (Fig. 58). It depends upon the evaporation of water to make it cool. Water will evaporate sufficiently fast to cool a refrigerator enough to be of value only in a dry, hot, breezy place. Under the most ideal condition, an iceless refrigerator may hold as low a temperature as 65 degrees Fahrenheit, when the thermometer is registering above 90 degrees.

This refrigerator consists of a cloth-covered frame and a device for keeping the cloth moistened with fresh water. Since wind or a good circulation of air helps in the evaporation of water, the iceless refrigerator must be placed where breezes may reach it, and it should be anchored so that it will not blow away.

An iceless refrigerator may be made from a rectangular frame of wood, to which heavy canton flannel is buttoned or tacked. On the top of this should be placed a pan of water with strips of cloth extending from the water to the covering of the frame. This will conduct the water from the pan out onto the cloth. The number of strips of cloth regulate the rapidity with which the water is carried to the sides of the refrigerator. The food is set inside (Fig. 58.) The refrigerator should be placed in a shady spot where the breezes can strike it. Iceless refrigerators must be kept clean, and the covering of cloth should be washed occasionally.

Some iceless refrigerators are enclosed in a chimney-like closet built on the house, the cold air coming in at the bottom and being drawn upward by the natural draft of the chimney-like structures. This draft hastens the evaporation of the water. Such refrigerators are expensive and less satisfactory than ice ones.

126. Small Cooler. A few things may be kept cool, like a bottle of milk and a small dish of butter, by setting them in a shallow pan of water and covering them with a flannel cloth which comes down into the water and so remains moist (Fig. 59). The evaporation of the water from the flannel cools the food somewhat below the temperature of the surrounding air.

127. Covered Pail. Another device is a metal pail (Fig. 60) covered with a heavy layer of cloth and a pan set on top of the cover. Into the pan is put some water and strips of cloth to conduct out the water. This may be hung in the kitchen window if it is shaded. The cover and the strips must be secured so that they will not blow off.

128. Unglazed Earthenware. Unglazed earthenware pitchers and jugs make excellent water coolers. The water is put in them, and, as the container is porous, a small amount filters thru the earthenware, and, as it reaches the surface and air, it evaporates, cooling the remaining water.

129. Cooling with Running Water. A very little stream of water from a faucet will cool the baby's milk and keep it from souring. The bottle should be set in a pan of water which is constantly renewed by the small stream running from the faucet. (Fig. 61.) This method of cooling should be used only in homes supplied with water from a spring or in an emergency. Under most circumstances, it is too extravagant a method of keeping food to be recommended. In cities it should be prohibited because it might cause too great a drain on the city water supply.

A larger device used for cooling milk is a tank of running water (Figs. 61-a-b). The water flowing thru this tank commonly flows into another tank used for the watering of stock. Cans with inverted covers like those illustrated are waterproof, because the air is caught inside them so that it cannot get out for the water to replace it. It does not require a large stream of water to renew that in the tank and keep it cool. The efficiency of this device depends entirely upon having a supply of cold water available.

130. Refrigerating Plants. Refrigerating plants are sometimes installed in private dwellings. These consist of a motor and a machine for compressing gas, a chamber which is to be cooled, and sometimes coils of pipe containing brine.

When the gas—for example, ammonia or carbon dioxide—is compressed, it heats the pump which compresses it. That is, when a liquid or gas is being compressed, it gives up heat. When a liquid or gas expands, it takes heat from somewhere. In refrigerating plants, the expanding gas is made to take the heat either directly from the refrigerator or storeroom, or from brine which is then used for cooling the refrigerator or room. Refrigerating plants require the same care as pumps, motors and refrigerators.

131. Water Coolers. Since ice is not always pure, it is necessary to use cooling devices which do not permit it to come into direct contact with the water. One type of water cooler consists of a can set in an ice box with a pipe leading to the outside so that the box does not have to be opened every time that water is wanted (Fig. 62). This can should be made so that it may be removed, washed and scalded.

Another cooler consists of a tank or water bottle placed on the outside of a refrigerator or box of ice with a pipe leading thru the refrigerator or box of ice (Fig. 63). The water flowing thru the pipe is cooled. The pipe ends at the outside of the ice box with a faucet to let out the water. This cooler cools only the water flowing into the pipe instead of the entire tank of water.

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132. Care of Water Coolers. Put only clean, pure water into the coolers, and keep them clean by flushing them out occasionally with boiling water.

CHAPTER XVIII

Fans and Ventilators

133. Selecting a Fan. With the coming of electricity into the home, fans have become practical home devices. Do not buy a fan or other electrical device without ascertaining whether the current is direct or alternating, and what voltage is needed to run it. Most city homes are now supplied with current ranging between 105 and 115 volts, so most fans are made for that. Fans will run on a small wire like that used for lighting.

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134. The Construction of the Fan in Common Use. A motor turns the fan. There is a regulator on some fans, so that they can be run at different rates of speed. Oil cups are important parts of fans. When a new fan is purchased, these cups are full of oil. The oil will last for many months, but if an old fan heats and sparks while being run, have an electrician examine it to see if all the parts are in order and there is a supply of oil. Figs. 64, 65 and 66 show types of fans in common use.

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135. Ventilator. A hood (Fig. 67) with a pipe leading into the chimney, placed over a cook stove, will conduct hot air and steam up the chimney. This is due to the fact that warm air rises and cold air comes in to take its place. An open skylight over a cook stove, also, makes an excellent ventilator and cooling device for kitchens.

Questions for Part IV

PART V

Water Supply and Sewage Disposal.

CHAPTER XIX

Pumps and Water Filters

136. Suction Pumps. A pump is a device for lifting water. The pumps in common use work on the principle that water which is under the pressure of air will rise to fill a vacuum or a partial vacuum. The pump is composed of a combination of valves and a piston for forcing the air out of the pipe to allow the water from below to be forced into it. A valve catches the water as it starts to flow back. The weight of the water holds the valve closed.

An outlet above the piston permits the water to flow into a tank or sink when the piston is again lifted to make a new vacuum and draw more water (Fig. 68).

137. Care of Pumps. The leather or material forming the piston must be kept moist, or it will shrink and leak. When it becomes worn and old, it must be renewed. It is not a difficult task to put new packing on a small suction pump. To do this, remove the pin attaching the piston to the handle. Lift out the piston, unscrew the bolt which holds the leather packing in place; put on the new packing, and replace the bolt, piston and pin.

Always pump with a regular, even stroke—a jerky one tends to wear the working parts of the pump.

The cylinder and pipe containing water must not be allowed to freeze. There is usually a plug in the pipe which may be removed to let out the water when there is danger of freezing. A cracked cylinder or pipe will leak air and not raise water.

Keep the bearings for the handle well oiled. When the pump gets old, the cylinder becomes worn and leaks. It can sometimes be replaced with a new cylinder, or more packing must be put on the piston.

138. Force Pumps. Force pumps are used on deep wells and in forcing water into storage tanks. They should be kept oiled; they should be operated with an even stroke, and the packing in them should be renewed if they leak air. In force pumps, the valves differ in their arrangement from suction pumps (Fig. 69).

139. Compressed-Air Pumps. Compressed-air pumps consist of a tank for storing the compressed air—a pump to force air into the tank and cylinders equipped with valves. These act automatically. Whenever an outlet pipe is opened, the extra pressure of air from the storage tank raises the water from the well or cistern (Fig. 70). Air should be kept in the pressure tank.

When this arrangement is used, open and close faucets slowly, not with a jerk. Fig. 70-a shows plumbing where such a system is used.

140. Water Filters. Water filters are devices for straining minute particles out of water. They are made of sand, charcoal or porcelain, kisselguhr and other materials. They are without value unless they are kept clean. A dirty filter is worse than none. Almost the only way to clean them is to sterilize them or put new material in them. Only with expert care can filters be made effective for removing disease germs. A dirty filter may prove a menace. Filters are valuable for removing coarse dirt from the water.

Filters on faucets should be cleaned or renewed every day. Large filters for rain water should be renewed every few months.

CHAPTER XX

Pressure Tanks; Plumbing Fixtures

141. Pressure Tanks. A pressure tank is a device for storing water under pressure. It is usually placed in the basement of dwelling houses.

142. Construction of the Pressure Tank. The tank is tight and strong, so that it will hold air and water under pressure. The tank originally has some air in it. When the water is pumped in, the air not being able to escape, is compressed. When there is a chance for water to escape from the tank which is connected to water pipes, the pressure of the compressed air on the water forces it to upstairs rooms and other points. To this tank is attached a pressure gage which indicates the amount of pressure; or, in other words, the amount of water in the tank, for when the water gets low, the pressure is reduced unless the air has escaped. A glass gage shows the height of water. Provision is made to let some air into the tank, for otherwise it may in time be all forced out of the tank or absorbed by the water. The water in a pressure tank may be used to pump water from a cistern into another tank.

143. Care of Pressure Tanks. A pressure tank must not be pumped up to the extent that the pressure becomes greater than the strength of the tank. A safety valve is used in controlling the pressure.

144. Hot-Water Kitchen Tank. A force pump is generally used for pumping water into kitchen tanks, except when water from another tank, such as a city reservoir, flows into it.

145. Instantaneous Water Heaters. The instantaneous water heater (Fig. 71) is a device which heats water on its way to the outlet. It is composed of a heating unit and piping connected to the outlet pipes. In this type of heater, the pipes must always be kept full of water, and some device should be attached (Fig. 72) to the heater which will lower the heat as soon as, or before, the water reaches boiling temperature. This will prevent steam from forming, which might injure the system.

146. Heaters for Tanks. Hot water is lighter than cold. A pipe from the bottom of the tank leads into the heater, passes thru the heating coils and up into the top of the tank (Figs. 73 and 74). Water from the tank circulates thru this pipe as the hot water rises and the cold water falls in the tank. As the heater is located on a level with the bottom of the tank, cold water seeking this level flows into the pipe and becomes heated (Fig. 76).

A booster is a device which keeps the water hot up to the faucet (Fig. 75). If there is a pilot on a gas water heater, be sure to use it. The burners should be cared for in the same way as on other heaters using the same fuel. Keep the tank full of water and the water free to circulate thru the pipes. Air-tight tanks may become so hot that steam is formed in large amounts. Tanks which are not connected with city water pipes may be fitted with safety valves which open when the pressure of steam inside the tank reaches a certain point, which is below the danger point.

Should the pipes or tank freeze, do not start the fire in the heater, but thaw the pipes with applications of hot water or other means until the water can circulate in them.

Electric heaters are usually incased in a waterproof covering and put in the center of the tank. Small electric heaters are in use for heating a glass or other small amount of water. These are called immersion heaters.

147. The Elevated Water Tank. In rural homes, water is sometimes stored in an elevated tank. This is usually placed in the attic. It is frequently filled by means of a force pump connected with a windmill or gasoline engine. If there is no overflow to this tank, which there should be, it must be watched when being filled to prevent it from overflowing. It may be fitted with an automatic device similar to those used on the expansion tanks of hot-water furnaces or tanks to water closets for regulating the inflow of water.

148. Faucets. Faucets are made in different patterns, but they need practically the same care (Fig. 77). The leather, or rubber, washer in a faucet must be renewed when it leaks. To renew the washer, unscrew the cap from the faucet. Remove the valve. Take off the ring of packing. Replace with a new ring, and put the faucet together again. The only tools needed for this repair work are a wrench and a screwdriver. Shut off the water from the pipe to the faucet before beginning to repair a leaking faucet.

149. Valves. Valves are constructed much like faucets.

They, too, sometimes need repacking. Follow the directions for repacking of faucet (Fig. 78).

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150. Overflows. Keep overflows clean. When the plug and overflow are combined, as they sometimes are, lift out the cylinder forming the plug and overflow and wash it. When it fails to hold water in the tub or basin, it may need a new washer on the lower part. This may be replaced very easily. Fig. 79 shows one type of overflow.

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It is more difficult to keep other overflows clean. They may be flushed or cleaned with a brush attached to a wire.

151. Traps for Bath Tubs and Basins. Dirt and slime collects in traps. Clean them frequently. Always leave clean water in the traps of bathroom fixtures and sinks. Only matter quickly soluble in water should pass into drain pipes. Keep matches, hair, sweepings, rags, fruit skins and stones out of the fixtures.

If the drain from a basin, sink or tub fails to carry away the water, the stoppage may be removed with a small plumber's pump (Fig. 80). This is a small rubber cone-like device which is placed over the outlet to the drain and moved up and down so that it sucks air, water and whatever may be movable up the pipe.

CHAPTER XXI

Cesspools, Septic Tanks and City Sewer Systems

152. Relative Value of Cesspool and Septic Tank. Sewer pipes for private water systems usually drain into cesspools or septic tanks (Figs. 81, and 81-a). The waste goes thru a process of decomposition before passing out into the soil. Sewage should both liquify and oxidize before entering into the soil. Oxidation purifies liquid sewage so that it is not contaminating. If oxidation is not brought about in the cesspool or septic tank, sewage, which is fresh, should be run onto the surface of the ground where the air and bacteria for oxidation can be found. Cesspools are not as good as septic tanks because there is not the surety of sewage being oxidized in them, as there is in the septic tank. They lack oxidizing chambers.

Unoxidized liquid sewage being in a condition to flow readily thru the earth, is more dangerous than fresh sewage because it is more likely to seep into wells.

153. Construction of the Septic Tank. The septic tank is composed of two chambers—one the liquefying chamber and the other the oxidizing chamber. Both are water-tight (Fig. 82). The fresh sewage comes into the liquefying chamber thru a pipe placed near the top of the tank. Here it stands and liquefies, which is a process of decomposition. The solids fall to the bottom as they come into this chamber, and the liquid formed rises to the top and flows into the oxidizing chamber (B, Fig. 82), when it reaches a point a little below the height of the inlet pipe. It either does this by flowing over a partition or thru a pipe leading from one compartment to the other.

The second compartment is usually slightly smaller than the first. Here the sewage is held until the process of oxidation takes place, which renders it less dangerous. When the sewage in the second chamber reaches a certain height, it siphons out into a tile which distributes it over a plot of ground (Fig. 81).

Various kinds of siphons are used, the important feature of them being that they are constructed so that they drain the tank often enough to remove the oxidized sewage and not so often as to remove it before it has become oxidized.

154. The Size of Tank. Because the liquid must be drained from the tank at certain intervals, it is important that the size of the tank be adapted to the amount of waste it will receive.

Septic tanks are kept warm by the heat generated in the oxidizing process, which is simply slow burning of the waste, so that they rarely freeze in winter.

Run waste water from the kitchen sink and laundry tubs into a catch basin to collect the grease from the water, as grease or oil on the surface of the sewage of a tank will stop the action of the microbes in the tank by smothering them.

When too much grease does get into it, the tank must be thoroly cleaned.

Do not use lye, chloride of lime, carbolic acid and other chemicals in drains and septic tanks. Disinfectants of this type put into pipes leading to a septic tank will kill the useful bacteria which decompose the sewage.

Use clear boiling water to clean the pipes. This will be cooled by the time it reaches the tank so that it will not kill the useful bacteria.

Insoluble mineral matter gradually accumulates in septic tanks, so that they must be cleaned once every few years. Care will postpone the times for cleaning.

Do not wash vegetables with much earth adhering to them in sinks leading to cesspools or septic tanks. Shake or rinse off the dirt before washing them.

155. Disposal of Waste in Cities. In some cities, householders are required by law to have catch basins connected to their sewer systems to remove leaves and dirt from storm water and grease from kitchen sinks and laundry tubs. The laws of other cities forbid the use of catch basins, but urge householders to help care for the city sewer system by not putting grease into sewer pipes.

Strong chemicals should not be put into the pipes. Use only boiling water in cleaning pipes. Do not wash vegetables on which there is much loose dirt in sinks.

CHAPTER XXII

Water Closets

156. Construction of Water Closets. The water closet is a device for the disposal of excrement. The closet includes a tank of water for flushing the waste from the bowl to the sewer or waste pipe. Between the bowl and the waste pipe is a device called a trap which holds water and seals the end of the waste pipe so that gases from the sewer or the septic tank cannot come into the house. (Fig. 83-a.)

The bowl of the newer models of water closets have the trap as a part of the bowl, which saves joints and connections likely to catch dirt and stop up the trap (Fig. 83). The water coming from the flushing tank is carried around the bowl so that it is flushed clean by the swift-flowing water. When the water reaches the bottom of the bowl, it rushes upward a few inches before it can turn downward to the waste pipe. This it does while flowing rapidly and cleansing the bowl; when the tank empties, water collects in the bowl to the level, where it can flow down the waste pipe (Fig. 83). As soon as all the water above this level has gone down the pipe, the remainder stays in the bowl, forming the seal until the next time the bowl is flushed. Fig. 83-a shows two kinds of traps.

If water flows at too rapid a rate thru the trap of the bowl, as in cases when there is too much pressure on the water or the tank is set too high so that gravity gives it too much force, or if an excessive suction is produced in the drain pipe, all the water may run out of the bowl, leaving the trap unsealed. The remedy for this is a change in the flushing tank or in its position.

157. Siphoning the Trap. If rags or shreds of material are dropped into the bowl and lodge in the trap, only a part of them going over into the waste pipe, they may siphon the water, sealing the trap, over into the waste pipe. There was more difficulty of this sort with traps of older models than with the newer types. Always leave clean water in the trap.

158. The Flushing Tank. The flushing tank (Fig. 84) is a reservoir to hold sufficient water to cleanse the bowl. In one type of tank, water is retained in the tank by a plug held in place by the weight of the water in the tank. By a lever on the outside of the tank, this plug is lifted when the bowl is to be flushed, and it stays open until all the water flows out of the tank. When the water has all left the tank, the plug falls back into the hole and fresh water flowing into the tank holds it in place, as there is nothing in the pipe below to make it float upward.

Working at the same time with the plug is a valve in the water supply pipe, attached to a large hollow float. The valve opens as the water flows out of the tank, and closes as the tank is filled. This valve is operated by the float floating on the surface of the water. As the water flows out of the tank, the float falls, opening the valve and letting in water. As the tank fills, the float rises to the top of the tank and shuts off the valve. If the float catches so that it fails to rise and fall, or becomes disconnected from the valve, it will not operate the valve. There is an overflow pipe in the tank which carries off all water rising above a certain level in the tank. This prevents the tank from overflowing when the valve fails to turn.

159. Repairing the Flushing Tank. When the water continues to flow into the tank, take off the cover of the tank and examine the valve and ball to see why they are not working properly. If disconnected or caught, remedy the trouble. If the plug fails to stop the flow of water out of the tank, water will also continue to flow into the tank. To remedy this temporarily, push the plug down over the outlet and also note the reason why it has not fallen back automatically. If worn, it may have to be replaced with a new one.

There should be a valve to close the pipe to the tank. With this valve, much water can be saved in time of trouble, and greater convenience may be had in remedying difficulties with the devices inside the tank.

Questions for Part V

PART VI

Laundry Equipment.

CHAPTER XXIII

Washing Machines

160. Kinds of Washing Machines. Washing machines are tools to help remove dirt from clothes either by friction or by forcing water thru them. They are known by such names as suction, cylinder, rotary, oscillating, locomotive and centrifugal machines. These names are used differently by various authorities.

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Washing machines may be attached to any kind of motor, or they may be manipulated by hand.

161. Suction Machines. The suction machines are made to force water thru the clothes (Figs. 85 and 86). Some are operated by hand, some by mechanical power, and some are funnel-shaped devices to be placed in boilers.

Hand or mechanical suction machines have cones or funnels which are pushed down onto the clothes and then suddenly lifted, causing suction which draws out the dirt previously loosened by the moisture and pressure. Mechanical devices attached to the top are sometimes used to raise and lower the funnels (Figs. 87 and 87-a).

The suction washers for use in boilers are placed funnel side down. By means of these, the steam forming in the bottom of the boiler forces the water thru the clothes. Distribute the clothes evenly about the washer. Fill the boiler with water and add shaved soap. When set over a fire, the steam forming at the bottom raises the water in the funnel to the top and pushes it out thru the clothes, or raises the funnel and makes it beat upon the clothes.

Other machines combine the two methods of washing—forcing water thru clothes and rubbing them at the same time.

162. Cylinder Washers. Cylinder washers contain a perforated barrel-like device, into which the clothes are placed (Fig. 88). This cylinder has cleats on the inside to raise the clothes as the cylinder turns and drop them when they reach the highest point in it, back into the water, thus pounding water thru them and rubbing them against the side of the cylinder as they are raised. This is the type used in most laundries. A cylinder turned by an electric motor is made which can be placed in the stationary wash tub in small apartments. The tub then serves as the outer part of the washing machine.

163. Rotary Washers. In the rotary, or milk-stool, type of washer, sometimes called "Dolly" (Fig. 89), the stool-like contrivance which presses against the clothes must be turned half-way around in one direction, and then back the other way, to prevent twisting, tearing or otherwise injuring the clothes. The clothes are thus rubbed against the corrugated sides and bottom of the machine, and thru the water. Never put too many clothes in this type of machine because too tight packing causes the machine to tear them.

164. Machine with an Oscillating Washing Device. This washer contains an oscillating device for rubbing the clothes over the corrugated bottom. The rubbing device is also corrugated and is put on top of the clothes and moved backward and forward, thus rubbing them between two wash-boards (Fig. 90).

165. Oscillating Washers. Oscillating washers have corrugated bottoms. The clothes are put into the machine with the wash water. The washer rocks, throwing the clothes backward and forward thru the water, loosening and squeezing out the dirt. This washer works easiest when the machine is well filled with water.

166. Locomotive Washer. The locomotive washer (Fig. 91) slides backward and forward, thus churning the water and clothes. It is operated only by power. A heating unit, usually gas, in the base of the machine keeps the water hot.

167. Centrifugal Washer. A centrifugal washer (Fig. 91-a) contains a perforated basket which whirls in the water contained in the machine. The clothes are placed in the basket, rolled into bundles. The rapid whirling thru the water removes the dirt from the clothes.

168. Care of Washers. The bearings and other motor parts of a washing machine should be kept oiled. Keep belts tight. Run the machine about ten minutes each while the clothes are in the first wash water and the two sudsy waters, and five minutes each for the hot and the cold rinse waters. Blueing had better be done in a tub.

Wooden machines must dry out occasionally, or else they get slimy. Do not let them get dry enough to crack. Air the machines after use. Cover them when not in use to keep them clean.

When a gasoline engine is used in operating a washing machine, it must be set so that the belt will pull straight on the pulley wheel of the machine. The belt should be tight enough to prevent slipping. Stationary washers are set to avoid such troubles, but those which are moved from place to place must be adjusted by the operator.

The pulleys must be adjusted to turn at the number of revolutions per minute directed for the washer used. This usually does not exceed 150 revolutions of the motor wheel per minute.

Water motors must receive more than 25 pounds of water pressure to operate a washing machine.

CHAPTER XXIV

Wringers

169. Roller Wringer. The kind of wringer in most general use is the one made of two rollers rotating in opposite directions, the clothes being drawn in between the two by friction, and the water pressed out. (See Fig. 88.)

The rollers in modern wringers are made of a composition of rubber. They are adjusted so that they may be brought close together or moved apart. When wringing thin articles, the rollers should be set close together, and when wringing heavy articles, they should be set far apart. This adjustment of the wringer helps to do better work and save wear and tear on clothing and wringer.

170. Care of Wringers. The bearings should be kept oiled, but oil must be kept off the rollers, as it rots them. Keep the rollers washed clean. Soap and water will remove the dirt which collects on them. If this does not clean them, wipe the rollers in a weak solution of ammonia.

If the rollers get badly stained, wipe them with a cloth dipped in kerosene. Wash this off immediately, as kerosene dissolves the rubber as well as the dirt.

Never leave a wringer with the pressure on the rollers when not in use. The pressure is either adjusted by thumb-screws or by a clamp. Loosen these when thru with the wringer.

171. Centrifugal Wringer, or Dryer. The centrifugal wringer, or dryer, consists of a tub, inside of which is a smaller tub with perforated sides. There is a drain at the bottom of the outside tub. The wringer is attached to a device for making the inside tub turn rapidly. The power used is either hand or machine (Fig. 92).

The rapid turning of the inner tub for three minutes throws the clothing and water in them to the outside of the revolving center. This tub being perforated, lets the water thru while retaining the clothing. Thus, the clothes are wrung as dry as in a wringer of the roller type. If the machine is turned a longer time, the clothes can be wrung entirely dry.

172. Care of the Machine. When loading centrifugal wringers, put the heavy pieces at the bottom of the basket. Put articles in basket in bunches, and pack fairly tight. Do not have loose ends hanging out. Fold sleeves into garments. Load the basket full if there are clothes enough. A cover helps to hold the clothes in place. Load so that it runs even and does not wobble.

Never hold your hand on the extractor after it has started.

173. Combination Washer and Wringer. The centrifugal washer and wringer combined is built so that the basket can be lowered into a tub of water. The clothes rotating in water are washed. After this is accomplished, the cylinder is raised, and, when rotated, serves as a wringer of the centrifugal type.

Load the washer with fewer clothes than for wringing. Roll each garment into a bunch before putting it into the washer.

Centrifugal wringers are used also as dry-cleaning machines. For this use, they should be operated out of doors and at a slower speed than when water is used. Friction heats gasoline, causing it to evaporate rapidly. The friction between clothing, tub and gasoline when turned at a high speed may produce a spark which will ignite the gasoline.

CHAPTER XXV

Mangles and Irons

174. Construction of Mangles. Mangles are made of rollers rotating in the same direction, one moving faster than the other, set close together so that they press the clothes smooth, or they consist of one roller rotating over a stationary surface called a shoe (Fig. 93).

175. Cold Mangles. When no heater is attached to the shoe or one roller, the mangle is a cold mangle. It smoothes clothes, but does not do as good work as a heated mangle. There is almost nothing about mangles to get out of order. The only caution necessary is to keep the bearings oiled, have guards so as not to catch hands in the power machines, and loosen the roller so that it is not pressed onto any surface when not in use.

176. Heated Mangles. The heated mangles have the heat applied to one of the rollers or to the shoe. They may be used cold. The heat may come from gasoline, gas, electricity or kerosene. The management of the heating unit is the same as for a stove using any of these fuels. The same care should be taken of the burners as of stove burners.

177. Care and Use of Mangles. (1) Have the clothes damp before putting them thru the mangle. (2) Protect the mangle from dust at all times. (3) See that belts are properly adjusted on mangles. (4) The covering put on mangle rollers must be of even thickness, or they will not do good work. (5) Do not mangle starched garments, or those on which are many or large buttons. (6) Wax the steel roller while it is warm, and wipe it clean with a cloth (Fig. 94). (7) Always remove pressure when not using mangles.

178. Flat, or Sadirons. Irons are of two kinds—those which must be heated on a stove, and the self-heating ones. The weight of the iron governs the amount of heat it will absorb, and this is the amount that it will give up in ironing. Heat is needed to dry clothes, and as the cloth can be smoothed best when damp, but will wrinkle again unless dried while smooth, heat is essential to the ironing process.

The weight of the iron helps in the smoothing process. The heavy irons do the best grade of work, but are harder to manipulate. The most satisfactory iron for a woman of average strength to manage weighs six to eight pounds.

The following points should be remembered in using the iron: (1) Rub rusty irons with bees'-wax or paraffine and wipe with a cloth. (2) Wash irons frequently, and rub with sand soap, Dutch cleanser, ashes or salt to polish them. (3) Rinse in boiling water and wipe dry. Warm on the stove and rub with bees'-wax, and set away. (4) Before using, wipe with a cloth. (5) Do not wash electric irons—rub with wax or paraffine. Wipe off with a clean cloth. (6) It has been found by tests that the time required in heating the self-heating iron usually equals the time required for the iron to cool after the heating has been stopped, but that an iron cools faster on wet, heavy cloth than on thin, dry cloth.

179. Charcoal Irons. Charcoal is no longer used for heating irons. It makes too much dirt. Difficulty is found, also, in keeping charcoal irons at a constant temperature.

180. Electric Irons. An electric iron (Fig. 95) is made up of a heavy nickel-plated base, a block of iron which holds the heat, and a heating unit of small wires, or a plate, thru which the current passes, meeting resistance. Since resistance against the flow of an electric current produces heat, the iron is heated. It has a handle and shell covering the heating unit to protect the hand and prevent loss of heat thru the top.

Getting electric irons too hot injures the heating unit, as electricity can heat metals so hot that they melt. Excessive heat may disconnect the circuit by burning the wires in the iron, or it may melt the metal so as to form a short circuit.

Always follow exactly the directions for connecting and disconnecting the iron with the current. Some say disconnect at the plug between iron and cord, or others the plug placed near the socket (Fig. 95-a). The weakest part in irons is likely to be in the attachment plug. When connecting the plug to the iron, be sure to get it back in place each time. A plug that does not fit well into place may cause sparking and develop sufficient heat to burn off the insulation from the cord, if not the fuses of the system to which the iron is attached.

Never attach an iron to a lighting system without making sure that the iron is made to be operated on the voltage of the current to which is is connected. If it is not the same, attaching the iron may either burn out the fuses of the lighting system, or ruin the iron.

Operate the iron at a good temperature for ironing, and take care to keep it from getting hotter than is required.

181. Gas Irons. Gas irons are attached to a tube leading from a gas pipe. There is a burner inside the iron which is generally a straight rod with perforations in it for the escape of the mixture of gas and air. The air mixes with the gas at a point near where the gas pipe enters the iron. The principle of heating an iron is the same as the heating of a gas stove (Fig. 96).

The burner in the iron is lighted, and as soon as it has heated the iron, the ironing can proceed. The only difficulties encountered in using this kind of an iron are that a quick, jerky stroke may blow out the flame, and if the work is being done in a drafty place, the iron may not heat evenly. These difficulties can be overcome, however. The person using the iron can learn to use a stroke which will be rapid and still not put out the flame. The ironing board may be protected from drafts. A gas iron is safe and practical. It is easily controlled by the valve admitting the gas.

182. Acetylene Irons. Acetylene irons are similar to gas irons, the difference in them being in the construction of the burner.

183. Alcohol Irons. Alcohol irons have a tank attached to them which holds about a half pint of alcohol. This iron is similar to the gasoline iron shown in Fig. 97. Some alcohol is turned into the iron, and then the valve is closed. This alcohol is lighted with a match and used to heat the generator in the iron so that it will be hot enough to change the alcohol into vapor. As soon as this is done, the alcohol is again turned on and lighted. The burners in these irons should be kept free from dirt. Like gas irons, they should be used with a stroke which will not put out the fire. They cannot be operated in a strong draft. The heat in them can be regulated by the valve which controls the flow of alcohol.

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184. Gasoline Irons. There are two kinds of gasoline irons. In one the tank is a part of the iron (Fig. 97), and in the other the tank is many feet away, where the gasoline is changed to gas by a cold-process gasoline gas machine and connected with the iron by a flexible tube. These latter operate like other gas irons.

Gasoline irons with the tank attached are operated the same as alcohol irons. The danger in these irons comes in the tanks becoming overheated. Alcohol is used first to heat the generator because it will not smoke the iron. The gasoline, when lighted, should burn with a blue flame.

The tank should be one which has been tested to stand a high gas pressure, as the gasoline in the tank may become heated and vaporize. The gas so formed must not escape into the room, where it might be ignited by a spark. If not allowed to escape, it exerts considerable pressure inside the tank. If the pressure becomes too great, it will break the tank, escape and ignite from the flame in the iron. The opening for filling must always be kept closed when the iron is in use.

Questions for Part VI