INDEX
- Abbott, Benjamin, 7, 8, 97, 227;
- letters to, 7, 9, 15, 22, 25, 26, 41, 44, 228
- Acoustical researches, 136
- Action at a distance unthinkable, 128, 153, 157, 216
- Admiralty, Scientific adviser to the, 68
- Æther, the, Speculations upon, 193, 213
- Airy, Sir George, Dispute with, 269
- Aloofness from scientific organisations, 264
- Ampère, Andrée Marie:
- Meeting with, 19;
- his researches, 80, 82, 85, 105, 126
- Analyst, Faraday’s professional work as, 51, 61, 63, 274
- Anderson, Sergeant:
- engaged as assistant, 96;
- his implicit obedience, 97, 242
- Andrews, Professor T., Letter to, 273
- Apparatus, Simplicity of, 239
- Arago, F.:
- Meeting with, 34, 238;
- his notations, 106, 116, 118;
- his philosophical reserve, 107
- Armstrong, Lord, on electrification of steam, 170
- Artists amongst acquaintances, 246
- Astley’s Theatre, 51
- Athenæum Club, 59
- Atmospheric magnetism, 206, 209, 210
- Atoms or centres of force, 241
- Autobiographical notes, 8, 17, 50, 58, 70, 71, 73, 76, 223, 243
- B.
- Babbage, Charles, 107, 116, 262
- Barnard, Edward, 46
- ——, Frank, 250, 286
- ——, George, 46, 51, 74, 89, 224, 246, 294
- ——, Miss Jane, 46, 259
- ——, —— Sarah (Mrs. Faraday), 46, 294
- Becker, Dr., Letter to, 244
- Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters of Faraday,” 7, 26, 40, 43, 48, 57, 58, 78, 108, 199, 226, 231, 293
- Benzol, Discovery of, 94, 101
- Bidwell, S., magnetic action of light, 184
- Biographies of Faraday (see Preface)
- Boltzmann:
- on crystalline dielectrics, 166;
- on the doctrines of Faraday and Maxwell, 216
- Bookbinding, 5, 6, 17, 249
- Bookselling, 5, 17, 26, 31
- Books by Faraday:
- “On the Means of Obtaining Knowledge,” 41;
- “Chemical Manipulations,” 101, 233;
- “On Alleged Decline of Science in England” (editor), 110;
- “Experimental Researches in Electricity and Magnetism,” 102;
- “Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics,” 76;
- “On the Prevention of Dry Rot in Timber,” 149;
- “Chemistry of a Candle,” 234;
- “The Forces of Nature,” 234
- Boots, a home-made pair of, 249
- Brande, W. F., Prof., 39, 57
- Breakdown in health, 170, 199, 222, 259
- British Association, 64, 224, 264, 268, 297
- Browning, Mrs. E. B., denounces Faraday, 251
- Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, Letter to, 240
- C.
- Cards, Use of, to assist memory, 7, 239
- Charge, electric, Query as to seat of, 154
- ——, The nature of an electric, 152
- Charitable gifts, 245, 296
- Chemical researches, 45, 82, 87;
- analysis of caustic lime, 76;
- new chlorine compounds, 87;
- liquefaction of chlorine, 93;
- discovery of benzol, 94;
- sulpho-naphthalic acid, 100
- Chemistry, How to examine in, 277
- Children and Faraday, 233, 235
- Chlorine, Liquefaction of, 55, 91
- Christmas lectures, 33, 37, 61, 101, 233, 234, 235, 258
- City Philosophical Society, 14, 16, 40, 41, 230
- Clerk Maxwell, J.:
- article on Faraday, 135;
- theory of conduction, 155;
- electromagnetic theory of light, 199;
- on Faraday’s conception of electric action, 217;
- letter to, on mathematics, 281
- Closing days of Faraday’s life, 259
- Coinage of new words, 116, 143, 144, 163, 188, 205
- Commonplace books, 40, 89
- Conduction, Theory of, 155
- Conservation of energy, 167, 219
- Contact theory of cells, 168
- Continent, Visits to, 16, 17, 74, 224
- Controversy, Detestation of, 268
- Convolutions of the forces of nature, 167, 172, 269, 270
- Copper disc experiment, 113
- Criticism, Uses of, 14, 231, 240, 269
- Crosse, Mrs. A., Reminiscences of, 233, 245, 270
- Crystallisation in relation to electric properties, 166, 167
- Crystals in the magnetic field, 200, 202
- Current, Conception of a, 146, 163
- Cutting the magnetic lines, 134, 213
- Crookes, Sir W., Advice to, 267
- D.
- Dalton, John, 65, 226
- Dance, Mr., gives Faraday tickets, 8;
- message to, 30
- Daniell, Prof. J. F., 64
- Davy, Sir Humphry:
- lectures of, 8, 36, 227;
- note to Faraday, 11;
- engages Faraday, 12;
- travels abroad, 17;
- his aristocratic leanings, 25;
- researches on electric arc, 37;
- invention of safety lamp, 37, 42, 269;
- writes to Faraday, 44, 45;
- misunderstanding with, 56;
- his jealousy of Faraday, 56, 59;
- his electromagnetic discovery, 80;
- and the liquefaction of chlorine, 93
- Davy-Faraday laboratory, The, 36
- De la Rive, Auguste, 29, 66, 105, 237;
- letters to, 29, 185
- —— —— ——, Gustave, 20, 28, 116, 141;
- letters to, 83, 85, 91, 207, 267
- De la Rue, Warren:
- his lecture, 39;
- his eclipse photographs, 219
- Diamagnetic, A, 179
- —— polarity, 192, 210
- Diamagnetism, Discovery of, 186
- Dielectric medium, 153, 159, 163
- Diploma-book, 271
- Discharge, electric, Forms of, 137, 162
- —— ——, Dark, 162
- Discoveries, Value of, 63, 224, 248
- Displacement currents, 166
- Doctrine of conservation of energy, 167, 219
- —— of correlation of forces, 172, 269, 270
- —— of electrons, 148
- Domestic affairs, 49, 69, 244, 257
- Doubtful knowledge, Aversion for, 46, 92
- Dry rot in timber, 149
- Dumas:
- Reminiscences by, 20, 59, 240;
- and Arago’s copper, 106;
- discovery of oxalamide, 137
- E.
- Eddy-currents, Effects due to, 107, 191, 204
- Education, Views on, 278
- Eel, The electric, 167
- Electric light for lighthouses, 218, 269
- Electrical machine, Faraday’s own, 6
- —— ——, The “new,” 121
- Electrochemical laws, 141, 147
- Electrodes, 143
- Electrolysis, 143
- Electrolytes, 143
- Electromagnetic rotations discovered, 51, 83, 87
- Electromagnetism, Foundations of, 77
- Electrons, Doctrine of, 148
- Electrotonic state, 116, 126, 166, 215
- Elocution, Lessons in, 43, 230
- Enthusiasm, 15, 89, 225, 240
- Ether, The (see Æther)
- Evolution of electricity from magnetism, 108, 114
- Examinations in chemistry, 277
- Experiment, Love of, 117, 230, 276
- —— the touchstone of hypothesis, 221
- —— versus mathematics, 117, 239, 280
- Experimental researches in electricity and magnetism:
- the first series, 113;
- the last series, 216;
- Clerk Maxwell on, 218
- Expert work, 51, 61, 63, 274
- Explosions in the laboratory, 94
- F.
- Faraday, James, 1, 2, 224
- Faraday, Michael:
- born, 1;
- schooling of, 2;
- goes as errand boy, 3;
- apprenticed as bookbinder and stationer, 5;
- journeyman bookbinder, 9;
- attends Tatum’s lectures, 6;
- attends Sir H. Davy’s lectures, 8;
- acts as Davy’s amanuensis, 10;
- engaged at Royal Institution, 12;
- his foreign tour with Davy, 16;
- visits Paris, 18;
- visits Florence, 21;
- visits Geneva, 22, 28;
- returns to Royal Institution, 34;
- lectures at City Philosophical Society, 40, 43;
- loyalty to Davy, 42, 59, 269;
- begins original work, 46;
- falls in love, 46;
- his poem to Miss Barnard, 46;
- his wedding, 49;
- made superintendent of laboratory, 49, 98;
- discovers electromagnetic rotations, 51;
- elected F.R.S., 59;
- made D.C.L. of Oxford, 65;
- awarded Copley Medal, 69;
- declines professorship in London University, 66;
- receives a pension in Civil List, 72;
- appointed adviser to Trinity House, 67;
- appointed elder in Sandemanian church, 293;
- discovers magneto-electric induction, 112, 115;
- discovers magneto-optic rotation, 176;
- discovers diamagnetism, 186;
- readmitted to Sandemanian church, 297;
- exposes spiritualistic phenomena, 250;
- declines Presidency of Royal Society, 255;
- declines presidency of Royal Institution, 255;
- resigns professorship at Royal Institution, 259;
- resigns advisership to Trinity House, 259;
- resigns eldership in Sandemanian church, 259;
- decease and funeral, 260
- ——, Robert, 1, 2, 6, 249, 250
- ——, Sarah (Mrs. Faraday), 49, 50, 51, 223, 225, 255, 257, 291;
- letters to, 47, 48, 52, 53, 256
- Faraday’s father, 1, 2, 224, 289
- —— mother, 1, 2, 12, 17, 22, 33, 41, 69, 289
- Fatalism, 52, 288
- Fees for professional work, 51, 61, 244, 274
- Field, The magnetic; first use of this term, 188
- Fishes, electrical, Researches on, 20, 139, 167
- Fluids, Alleged electric and magnetic, 212, 216, 218
- Foreign travel, 16, 17, 74, 224
- Fox, Caroline, Reminiscences of, 235
- Fraser’s Magazine and Faraday’s pension, 72
- Fresnel’s announcement, 105
- Friday evenings at the Royal Institution, 33, 60, 100, 101, 149, 166, 170, 192, 203, 219, 220, 225, 232, 236, 259
- Fuller, John, founds the Fullerian professorships, 36
- Funeral, 260
- G.
- Gases, Liquefaction of, 55, 91, 171
- ——, Magnetic properties of, 204, 208
- Gassiot, J. P., Reminiscences by, 13
- German language, Views on the, 280
- Gladstone, Dr. J. Hall, 69, 290
- Glass, Researches on, 95
- Glassites (see Sandemanians)
- Gold, Optical properties of, 219
- Gravity in relation to electricity, 204, 220, 285
- ——, Speculations as to, 195, 203
- Grove, Sir Wm., 263, 269
- Gymnotus, 167
- H.
- Hachette, Letter to, 266
- Hampton Court, House at, 257, 258
- Hare, R., Letter to, 269
- Harris, Sir W. Snow, 64, 269
- Heat, Effect of, on magnetism, 208
- Heavy-glass, 100, 176
- Helmholtz, Prof. H. von, 282, 283
- Henry, Professor Joseph, Reminiscence by, 241
- Herschel, Sir John, 57, 95, 107, 116, 131, 262, 297
- Home life, 49, 69, 223, 244, 257
- Honours awarded to Faraday, 69, 199, 244, 255, 271
- ——, scientific, Views on, 271
- Hypotheses, Free use of, 221, 241
- I.
- Ice a non-conductor, 140
- ——, Regelation of, 219
- Identity of electricity from different sources, 137
- Imagination, Use of the, 160, 227, 276
- Incandescent electric lamps, 199
- Income, 68, 245
- Indignation against wrong, 227
- Induced currents, 114
- Induction (electromagnetic), Discovery of, 114
- —— (electrostatic), or influence, 153
- ——, Meaning of the term, 119
- Inductive capacity, 159
- Influence (see Induction)
- Inner conflicts, 226, 290
- Iodine, Davy’s experiments on, 19, 24, 27
- Ions, Origin of term, 144, 145
- J.
- Jenkin, Wm., observes spark at break, 150, 243
- Jones (see Bence Jones)
- Journals of foreign travel, 18, 224
- Juvenile lectures at Royal Institution, 33, 37, 61, 101, 233, 234, 235, 258
- K.
- Keble, Rev. J., and the hodge-podge of philosophers, 65
- Kelvin, Lord:
- theory of electromotive forces, 148;
- on theory of magnetic permeability in æolotropic media, 201;
- on Faraday’s views of electricity, 284;
- letter from, 285
- Kerr, Dr. John:
- electro-optic discovery, 173;
- magneto-optic discovery, 182
- Kindliness, 226
- Knighthood no honour, 273
- Kundt, Aug., magneto-optic discovery, 182
- L.
- Laboratories at Albemarle Street, 36, 51, 66, 80, 84, 96
- Lateral effects of current, 151, 165, 170
- Lectures at Royal Institution:
- Davy’s, 8, 36;
- Faraday’s first, 227;
- Juvenile, 33, 37, 61, 101, 233, 234, 235, 258;
- afternoon, 37, 166
- ——, Friday night discourses, 33, 60, 100, 101, 149, 166, 170, 192, 203, 219, 220, 225, 232, 236, 259
- Lectures at the London Institution, 101
- —— at the British Association, 264
- —— at St. George’s Hospital, 166
- —— at Woolwich, 66, 101
- Lecturing, Views about, 16, 226, 232, 238
- Letters from Faraday to:
- Abbott, B., 7, 9, 15, 22, 25, 26, 41, 44, 228;
- Andrews, T., 273;
- Barnard, Miss Sarah, 47, 48;
- Becker, Dr., 244;
- Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, 240;
- Davy, Sir H., 10;
- De la Rive, A., 29, 185;
- De la Rive, G., 83, 85, 91, 207, 267;
- Deacon, Mrs., 253;
- Faraday, Mrs., 52, 53, 256;
- Grove, Sir Wm., 263;
- Hare, R., 269;
- Lovelace, Lady, 291;
- Matteucci, Prof. C., 253, 262, 267;
- Melbourne, Lord, 71;
- Moore, Miss, 207;
- Murray, Mr. John, 234;
- Paris, Dr. J. A., 10, 93;
- Percy, Dr. J., 253;
- Phillips, R., 61, 109, 114, 194, 270, 277;
- Riebau, G., 30;
- Royet, Dr. P., 99;
- Schönbein, Professor, 206, 252;
- the Deputy-Master of Trinity House, 67;
- Tyndall, Prof. J., 210, 264, 268, 277, 278, 280;
- Whewell, Rev. W., 145;
- Young, Dr. T., 97
- —— to Faraday:
- From Sir H. Davy, 44, 45;
- from Baron Liebig, 225;
- from Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), 285;
- from Rev. W. Whewell, 116, 144, 145, 163, 205
- Liebig, J. von, Reminiscences by, 224, 282
- Light, Action of magnetism on, 176
- ——, Electromagnetic theory of, 197, 199, 213
- Lighthouses, Scientific work for, 67, 199, 218, 259
- Lines of force, 113, 133, 195, 208, 211, 213, 285;
- vibrations of, 195
- Liquefaction of gases, 55, 91, 171
- London University (see University)
- Love of children, 233, 235
- ——, Poetical diatribe against, and recantation, 40, 47
- Lovelace, Lady, Letter to, 291
- Love-letters of Faraday, 47, 48, 52, 58, 256
- M.
- Magnecrystallic forces, 201
- Magnetic lines, 113, 133, 195, 213, 214
- Magnetisation by light, 183
- —— of light, 176
- Magnetism and cold, 167
- —— of gases, 204
- —— of rotation, Alleged, 106, 121
- Magneto-electric discovery, 95, 112
- —— induction, 115
- —— light, 120, 130, 218, 259
- —— machines, 122, 125, 126, 218, 259
- Magneto-optical researches, 176, 182, 220
- Magrath, E., 7, 14, 60, 231
- Marcet, Mrs., Conversations on Chemistry, 6
- Masquerier teaches Faraday to draw, 8
- Mathematics versus experiment, 117, 239, 280
- ——, Faraday’s views on, 280, 281
- —— and Faraday’s methods, 217, 282
- Matteucci, C., Letters to, 253, 262, 267
- Maxwell (see Clerk Maxwell)
- Mayo, Herbert, Impromptu by, 117
- Meat-canning processes, 243
- Medium, Action in a, 157, 213, 216
- ——, The part played by the, 128, 153, 158, 194, 213
- Melbourne, Lord, and Faraday’s pension, 69
- Memory, Troubles of a defective, 7, 63, 74, 253
- Mental education, Views on, 278, 292
- Models, Use of, 104, 239
- Moigno, Abbé, Reminiscence by, 297
- Moll, G.:
- his electromagnets, 120;
- pamphlet on “Decline of Science,” 110, 262
- Moore, Miss, Letter to, 207
- Morichini’s experiments on magnetisation by light, 21, 183
- Murchison, Sir R., Reminiscence by, 227
- Music, Enjoyment of, 246
- N.
- Natural theology, Views on, 298
- New electrical machine, 121
- Newman, Rev. J. H., and the British Association, 65
- Newton, Mr. Jos., Reminiscence by, 254
- Nobili and Antinori, their mistake, 266
- Non-inductive winding, 150
- Notebooks a better test than examinations, 277
- ——, Faraday’s own, 8, 50, 73, 87, 90, 91, 108, 111, 118, 129, 141, 143, 150, 153, 156, 167, 177, 180, 181, 182, 220
- O.
- Oersted’s discovery of electromagnetism, 77, 78
- Optical glass, Research on, 95, 100
- —— illusions, Research on, 136
- —— relations of electricity, 91, 149, 155, 167, 172, 174, 175
- —— —— of magnetism, 176, 182, 220
- Order and method, 68, 99, 200
- Owen, Lady, Reminiscences by, 236
- Oxford and the philosophers, 64
- Oxygen, Magnetic properties of, 208
- P.
- Paris, Dr. J. A., Letters to, 10, 93
- Passive state of iron, 167
- Peel, Sir Robert, 69, 70, 246
- Pension:
- declined, 71;
- accepted, 72
- Percy, Dr. John, Letter to, 253
- Permeability, Magnetic, in crystals, 201
- —— ——, Research on, 206
- Personal appearance, 4, 18, 74, 255
- Phillips, Richard, 7, 44, 52, 54, 57, 59, 61, 84, 87, 193;
- letters to, 61, 109, 114, 194, 270, 277
- Phosphorescence, Lectures on, 136, 219
- Plücker, Julius:
- on magneto-optic action, 203;
- shows electric discharge, 240
- Poetry by Faraday, 40, 47
- Poisson:
- on Arago’s rotations, 107;
- on magnetic theory, 201
- Polar forces in crystals, 94, 200, 202
- Polemics in science hateful, 268
- Poles are only doors, 141, 241
- Politics, Indifference to, 19, 21, 33, 268
- Pollock, Lady, Reminiscences by, 235, 254, 257
- Practical applications of science, 63, 216, 224, 248, 259
- Preaching, Style of, 293
- Preservation of Raphael’s cartoons, 246
- Prince Consort, H.R.H. the, 237, 257, 278
- Principle of all dynamo machines, 216
- Priority in discovery, 265
- Professional work for fees, 51, 61, 274
- —— —— relinquished, 61, 274, 275
- Professorship of Chemistry at University College, The, 66, 277;
- declined, 66
- Professorships at the Royal Institution, 36
- Proportional judgment advocated, 242
- Public Schools Commission, Evidence given before, 278
- Punch, Caricature in, 252
- Pusey and science, 65
- Q.
- Quarterly Journal of Science, 39, 46, 75, 76, 82, 88, 92, 94, 104
- Queen Victoria, 257, 297
- R.
- Radiant matter, 40
- Rain torpedo, The, 20
- Ray-vibrations, Thoughts on, 193
- Regelation of ice, 219
- Reid, Miss, Reminiscences by, 223, 231
- Religious belief, 51, 289, 291
- Religious character, 71, 244, 245
- Remuneration of science, 44, 68, 244, 274
- Repulsions, magnetic, New, 190
- Research, Royal Institution as place for, 37
- —— unhampered by other duties, 37
- Researches, Original:
- the four degrees of, 241;
- Faraday’s first, 76;
- Faraday’s last, 220;
- division into periods, 75;
- summary of, 216
- Residences:
- Weymouth Street, 2;
- Royal Institution, 13, 68;
- Hampton Court Cottage, 258
- Retardation of discharge, 161
- Riebau, George:
- Faraday’s employer, 3, 7, 22;
- Faraday apprenticed to, 51;
- letters and messages to, 29, 34
- Ring, The famous experiment with the, 108
- Robinson, H. Crabb, Reminiscences by, 8, 236
- Röntgen on displacement currents, 166
- Rotation of plane of polarisation of light, 177
- Rotations, electromagnetic, Discovery of, 51, 83, 87
- Royal Institution:
- foundation of, 35;
- Davy’s lectures at, 8, 36, 39;
- precarious state of, 22, 29, 35, 36, 68;
- laboratories of, 36;
- lectures at the, 37, 166;
- Christmas lectures, 33, 37, 61, 101, 233, 234, 235, 258;
- Friday night meetings, 33, 60, 100, 101, 149, 166, 170, 192, 203, 219, 220, 225, 232, 236, 259;
- Presidency offered and declined, 255
- Royal Society:
- first papers read to the, 52, 263;
- candidature for Fellowship in the, 56, 57, 59;
- Faraday’s election as Fellow of the, 59;
- committee on optical glass, 95, 99;
- Member of Council, 136, 261;
- Presidency offered to him, 255, 263;
- dissatisfaction with, 262
- Ruhmkorff’s induction-coil, 219, 225
- Rumford, Benjamin Count of:
- founds the Royal Institution, 35;
- Faraday dines with, 34
- S.
- Sacrifice for Science, 63, 64, 234, 244
- Safety-lamp:
- Faraday aids Davy to invent the, 42;
- controversy about, 269
- Salaries paid to scientific men, 44, 68, 244, 274
- Sandemanians, 4, 51, 286
- Schönbein, Prof., Letters to, 206, 252
- Science in education, 279
- —— teaching, Views on, 278
- Scientific societies, 261
- Scoffern, Dr., Anecdote by, 280
- Self-induction investigated, 150, 151
- Sermons, Faraday’s, 293
- Shaftesbury, Earl of, 69
- Sirium, alias Vestium, 46, 77
- Sisters, His letters to his, 32
- Smart, B. H., teaches elocution, 43, 230
- Snow-Harris (see Harris)
- Social character, 245
- Society of Arts, 14
- Source of electromotive force in cell, 168
- South, Sir James, 6, 57, 69, 70, 97, 262
- Spark from a magnet, 64, 119, 130
- Specific inductive capacity, 159
- Spiritualists, Opinion of, 251
- Steel, Research on, 82
- Stinginess of British Government towards science, 274
- Sturgeon, W.:
- his invention of the electromagnet, 102, 226;
- on Arago’s rotations, 107
- Submarine cables, 161
- Sunday observance, 24, 51, 55, 224, 295, 297
- T.
- Table-turning explained, 251
- Tatum’s lectures, 6, 14
- Testimonials of candidates, Repugnance to, 277
- Thames impurities, 252
- Thomson, Sir W. (see Kelvin)
- Thoughts on ray-vibrations, 193
- Thunderstorms enjoyed, 240
- Time of propagation of magnetism, 220, 284
- Toronto, what its university might have been, 277, 278
- Torpedo, The, 20
- Trinity House, Scientific adviser to, 67, 199, 218, 259
- Tubes of force, 211
- Turner, J. W. M., R.A., Advice to, about pigments, 246
- Tyndall, Prof.:
- reminiscences by, 4, 49, 74, 175, 187, 225, 255, 290, 296, 299;
- his “Faraday as a Discoverer,” 4, 130, 157, 169, 202;
- letters to, 210, 264, 268, 277, 278, 280
- U.
- Utility of discoveries, 63, 224, 248
- University College, Professorship in, 66, 277
- University of London:
- Senator of, 275;
- degrees in science, 275
- V.
- Varley, Cornelius, 5, 294
- Velocipede riding, 74
- Vesuvius, Ascents of, 22, 33
- Vibrations, Thoughts on ray-, 193
- Visits to the sick, 245, 296
- Volta, Count Alessandro, Meeting with, 22
- Volta-electric induction, 115
- Voltameter, 146
- W.
- Water, On freezing of, 203
- Wellington, The Duke of, on practical application of discovery, 248
- Wheatstone, Sir Charles:
- on velocity of discharge, 149, 161;
- his electric chronoscope, 192
- Whewell, Rev. W., Correspondence with, about terms, 116, 144, 145, 163, 205
- White, Walter, Reminiscences by, 253, 263
- William IV., King, 72, 73
- Wiseman, Cardinal, Meeting with, 297
- Wollaston, Dr. W. H., Misunderstanding with, 51, 56, 57, 58, 84, 89
- Woolwich Academy lectures, 66, 101
- Working, Method of, 66, 242, 247
- Y.
- Young, Dr. T., Letter from, 97
- Z.
- Zeeman’s magneto-optic discovery, 220