Mimicry in Butterflies

INDEX

References to the plates are given in thicker type

Acraea, taken by kestrel, 118;

A. axina, 122;

A. caldarena, 122;

A. egina, 34, VI. 7;

A. encedon, patterns of different forms in relation to those of Danais chrysippus, 29, 144;

typical form of, IX. d;

alcippina form of, IX. e;

daira form of, IX. f;

A. halali, 122;

A. violae, 33 note;

eaten by lizards, 108;

attacked by birds, 110, 117

Acraeinae, as models for African butterflies, 33

Adaptation and Natural Selection, 61

Adelpha, 54

African butterflies, mimicry among, 28-36

Alcidis agathyrsus, 27, 145, III. 1

Aletis helcita, 36

Amauris echeria, 30, 148, VIII. 7;

A. hyalites, 30, VI. 2;

A. niavius, 30, VIII. 6

Amphidasys betularia, rapidity of increase in melanic sport of, 101

Anosia plexippus (= Danais archippus), 113

Anthomysa, 41

Aporia agathon, 149

Araschnia levana, seasonal dimorphism in, 130;

typical form, VI. 10;

prorsa form, VI. 9;

porima form, VI. 8

Archonias, 43, 56, 145;

A. critias, XI. 10

Argynnis diana, 47, XVI. 3;

A. hyperbius, 29;

as mimic of Danais plexippus, 52;

in mimicry ring, 66, IV. 3, 4

Artamus fuscus, 112

Asilid flies, as enemies of butterflies, 106

Athyma punctata, 53

Bates, G. L., on contents of birds' stomachs, 113

Bates, H. W., on mimicry, 9;

on resemblances between unpalatable forms, 14;

on initial variation in mimetic resemblance, 63;

on S. American Pierines attacked by birds, 112

Bateson, 3

Belenois, 36

Bingham, on birds eating butterflies, 110

Birds, as enemies of butterflies, 109;

stomach contents of, 113;

feeding experiments with, 115;

colour perception in, 119

Bowater, on Amphidasys betularia, 102, 137 note

Breeding experiments, with Hypolimnas dubius, 30;

with Papilio polytes, 84;

with Papilio memnon, 89;

with Papilio dardanus, 90;

with Pseudacraea eurytus, 128

Bryant, on birds eating butterflies, 114

Buchanga atra, 111

Byblia ilithyia, 122

Caduga tytia, 24, 51, II. 2

Callamesia pieridoides, 56

Calotes ophiomachus, 107;

C. versicolor, 107

Carpenter, on intermediates in Pseudacraea eurytus, 126;

on breeding experiments with Pseudacraea eurytus, 128

Castnia, as mimic, 39, XII. 4;

scales of, 41, XV. 5

Catopsilia, 121;

C. florella, 111;

C. pyranthe, 111

Cerchneis rupicoloides, 118;

C. naumanni, 117

Cercopithecus pygerythrus, 121

Charaxes athamas, 110

Citronophila similis, 35

Classification of butterflies, 18-21

Colaenis telesiphe, 38, XI. 4

Cyclosia hestinioides, III. 3

Cymatophora or, establishment of melanic sport in, 102 note

Cyrestis thyodamas, 110

Danainae, characteristics of, 22;

as models for Oriental butterflies,23;

as models for African butterflies, 28

Danais, 111, 145;

D. archippus, 48;

eaten by lizard, 108;

rejected by bird, 113, XVI. 8;

D. berenice, 48, XVI. 9;

D. chrysippus, 23, 28;

flight of, 55;

in mimicry ring, 65;

eaten by lizards, 108;

eaten by Bee-eater, 111;

eaten by Brown Shrike, 117;

rejected by Kestrel, 118;

rejected by baboon, 122;

local variation in, 132;

patterns overlapping with those of Acraea encedon, 144;

alcippus form, IX. b;

dorippus form, IX. c;

typical form, IV. 1, VIII. 5;

D. plexippus, as model for Argynnis hyperbius, 52;

in mimicry ring, 65;

eaten by Liothrix, 115 note, IV. 2;

D. petiverana, 29, VI. 1;

D. septentrionis, 23, 111, 112, I. 3;

D. vulgaris, 150

Darwin, on natural selection, 1;

on adaptation, 5;

on initial variation in mimetic resemblance, 63;

on a difficulty of the mimicry theory, 65

Defence in butterflies, 54

Delias cathara, 56;

D. eucharis, 28, 115, 116, II. 1

de Meijere, on breeding Papilio memnon, 89

de Vries, 3

Dismorphia, as mimics of Ithomiinae, 38, 42;

restricted range of many forms, 51;

diversity of pattern in genus, 58;

as Batesian mimics, 135;

patterns parallel with those of Ithomiinae, 145;

D. astynome, 151;

D. avonia, 151;

D. cretacea, 5, 8, 62, X. 1;

D. orise, as mimic, 39, XII. 2;

scales of, 40, XIV. 2;

D. praxinoe, as mimic, 57, 62, X. 2, 3;

as member of mimicry ring, 134

Distasteful groups, characteristics of, 55

Eltringham, 17 note, 32 note, 36 note

Elymnias, patterns in genus compared with those of Danaidae, 59, 144;

E. malelas, 24, II. 6, 7;

E. phegea, 35, VII. 9;

E. singhala, 25, I. 9;

E. undularis, in mimicry ring, 66, 115 note, 116, IV. 5, 6

Epicopeia polydora, 27, III. 5

Equilibrium, conditions of in mixed population, 93

Eresia, 134, 135

Eugonia californica, 114

Euphaedra ruspina, 36

Euploea core, 25, 108, 110, 112, I. 10;

E. mulciber, 24, 51, II. 4, 5;

E. rhadamanthus, 24, 51, II. 8;

E. rafflesii, 110

Euploeinae, characteristics of, 22;

as models for Oriental butterflies, 24;

in relation to birds, 111, 112, 115 note

Euripus halitherses, 24

Feeding experiments, with Mantids, 105;

with lizards, 107;

with birds, 115;

with mammals, 121

Finn, on feeding experiments with lizards, 108;

on feeding experiments with Indian birds, 115;

on feeding experiments with a Tree-shrew, 121

Flight, different in model and mimic, 55;

difference of in Papilio polytes and its models, 82

Fryer, on breeding Papilio polytes, 84;

on relative abundance of females of Papilio polytes in Ceylon, 97;

on birds eating "unpalatable" butterflies, 112

Gerrhonotus infernalis, 108

Haase, on mimicry, 16;

on classification of Papilionidae, 25

Hahnel, on S. American Pierines attacked by birds, 112

Hardy, on conditions of equilibrium in a mixed population, 94

Hearsy, on birds eating butterflies, 111

Hebomoia, 110

Heliconinae, as models for S. American butterflies, 38

Heliconius, 145;

H. eucrate, XV. 3;

H. melpomene, as model, 42, 43, XI. 5;

H. mirus, XV. 1;

H. pardalinus, XV. 4;

H. splendens, XV. 5;

H. sulphurea, 43, XI. 1;

H. telchinia, XV. 2;

H. telesiphe, XI. 3

Herpestes galera, 121

Hess, on colour perception in birds, 119

Hopkins, on pigment of Pierids, 150

Hypolimnas dubius, polymorphism in, 30;

as mimic of Danaines,30, VII. 8, 9;

breeding experiments with, 30;

var. mima compared with model, 148;

patterns of in relation to models, 149;

H. bolina, 25, 117, I. 5, 6;

H. misippus, 25, 29,

as model, 53;

flight of, 55;

in mimicry ring, 66, 116;

eaten by Brown Shrike, 117;

alcippoides form, IX. h;

inaria form, IX. i;

typical form, IV. 7, 8, IX. g

Ideopsis daos, III. 4

Initial variation, difficulty of, 63

Insect enemies of butterflies, 105

Intermediates, between different forms of Pseudacraea eurytus, 128;

in relation to mimicry,129, 140

Ithomiinae, characteristics of, 10;

as models for S. American butterflies, 38

Ituna, 39;

I. ilione, 40, XIV. 4;

I. phenarete, XII. 3

Jacobsen, experiments with Papilio memnon, 89

Jordan, 40 note

Junonia, 111

Lanius cristatus, 117

Limenitis albomaculata, 53;

L. archippus, 49, 59, XVI. 6;

L. arthemis, 47, 49, XVI. 4;

L. astyanax, 47, XVI. 5;

L. floridensis (= eros), 49, XVI. 7;

L. proserpina, 47

Lizards, as enemies of butterflies, 107

Local varieties, in connection with mimicry, 132

Lycaenidae, as mimics in Africa, 35

Lycorea, 145

McAtee, on feeding experiments with birds, 118

Mammals, as enemies of butterflies, 121

Manders, on feeding experiments with lizards, 107;

with birds, 117

Mantids, as enemies of butterflies, 105

Marshall, on Müllerian mimicry, 72;

on feeding experiments with Mantids, 105;

on birds as enemies of butterflies, 107;

on feeding experiments with S. African birds, 117;

with monkeys, 121;

on birds attacking Pierids, 150

Mechanitis egaensis, XV. 9;

M. elisa, XV. 6;

M. lysimnia, 151, XV. 8;

M. methona, XV. 10;

M. saturata, as model for Dismorphia praxinoe, 57, 62;

as member of mimicry ring, 134, XV. 7

Melanic sports in moths, 101

Melinaea, 135

Melinda formosa, App. II

Melittophagus swinhoei, 110

Merops viridis, 111

Merrifield, on seasonal dimorphism, 130

Methona confusa, XII. 1, XIV. 1

Migratory birds, suggested influence on mimicry of, 53

Mimacraea, 35

Mimetic resemblance, as induced through gradual slight changes, 64

Mimic, occupying same station as model, 51;

occupying station apart from model, 53;

scarcer than model, 56;

pattern of in relation to allies, 57

Mimicry, Wallace's conditions of, 50;

Batesian, 9;

Müllerian, 14

Mimicry rings, 65;

in S. American butterflies, 134;

and natural selection, 136

Mimicry theory, difficulties of, 139

Monkeys, as enemies of butterflies, 121

Moths, mimicry in, 27, 36

Moulton, on S. American mimicry rings, 134

Müller, 14, 72

Müllerian mimicry, 53, 57, 66;

difficulties of, 72

Mutation, see Sports

Mylothris, 36

Natural selection and mimicry, 10-12, 61, 92, 152

Neal, on monkeys as enemies of butterflies, 123

Nepheronia (= Pareronia) hippia, 116

Neptis imitans, 24;

N. nemetes, 54;

N. kamarupa, 121

North American butterflies, mimicry among, 45

Norton, on rapidity of changes in mixed populations through natural selection, 94, App. I

Oriental butterflies, mimicry among, 23

Overlapping in patterns of different groups of butterflies, 144

Papilio aristolochiae, as model for female of P. polytes, 13, 26, 52, 77;

range of, 79;

likeness to P. polytes, 80;

characteristics of, 81;

flight of, 82;

eaten by lizards, 108;

rejected by certain birds, 115, 116;

disliked by Tree-shrew, 121, V. 5, 5a;

P. agestor, 24, 51, II. 3;

P. asterius, 46;

P. bachus, App. II;

P. bootes, 27, III. 6;

P. brasidas, 29, VI. 4;

P. chamissonia, 44, XIII. 2;

P. clytia, 23, 25, 55, I. 7, 8;

P. coon, 26, 89;

P. cynorta, 35, 36, VII. 10;

P. dardanus, investigated by Trimen, 14;

mimicry in, 30;

breeding experiments with, 90;

polymorphic forms of in relation to models, 149 note;

var. humbloti, 32;

var. meriones, 32;

♀ cenea, 31, VIII. 4;

♀ dionysus, 31, 33;

♀ hippocoon, 31, VIII. 3;

♀ niavioides, 32, 33;

♀ planemoides, 31;

♀ ruspina, 33;

♀ trimeni, 31, 32, 33;

♀ trophonius, 31, 122, VIII. 2;

P. delesserti, App. II;

P. demoleus, 111, 121;

P. echerioides, App. II;

P. erithonius, 110;

P. euterpinus, 42, 43;

P. glaucus, 45;

var. turnus, 46;

P. hahneli, 39;

P. hector, model for female of P. polytes, 13, 52, 78;

range of, 79;

characteristics of, 81;

flight of, 82;

eaten by lizards, 108;

eaten by birds, 110, 117, V. 6, 6a;

P. hippason, App. II;

P. laglaizei, 27, 124, III. 2;

P. leonidas, 29, VI. 3;

P. lysithous, polymorphism in, 44;

♀ lysithous, XIII. 4;

♀ rurik, XIII. 5;

♀ pomponius, XIII. 6;

P. macareus, 23, 111;

P. memnon, 26, 89;

P. mendax, 24, 51, II. 9;

P. nephalion, 44, XIII. 1;

P. osyris, XI. 8, 9;

P. paradoxus, 25;

P. pausanias, 43, XI. 2;

P. perrhebus, 44, XIII. 3;

P. philenor, as model, 45;

taken by lizard, 108, XVI. 1;

P. polytes, polymorphism in females of, 13, 75;

mimic of Pharmacophagus Papilio, 26;

habits of, 52, 124;

often more abundant than models, 56;

description of, 76-78;

relative abundance of models in Ceylon, 79;

breeding experiments with, 84;

equilibrium among females of in Ceylon, 96;

relative abundance of three forms of female of in Ceylon, 97;

historical notes on abundance of forms of female in Ceylon, 98;

origin of forms of female in, 125, 141;

relation of polymorphic forms to models in, 149 note;

preyed on by Wood-Swallow, 112;

feeding experiments with, 116, V. 1-4, 1a-4a;

P. polyxenus, 27;

P. rex, App. II;

P. ridleyanus, 34, 36, VI. 6;

P. sarpedon, 110;

P. troilus, 45, XVI. 2;

P. xenocles, 23, 111, I. 4;

P. zagreus, 43, X. 8

Papilionidae, as mimics of Oriental models, 23-25;

of African models, 29, 30, 35;

of S. American models, 43;

of N. American models, 45

Parallel patterns, in different butterfly groups, 144

Pareronia, 145, 149;

P. ceylanica, 23, 59, 116 note, I. 1, 2

Pattern and physiological properties, possible connection between, 137

Patterns, overlapping series of in different groups of butterflies, 145

Pedaliodes, 135

Pereute charops, 42, XI. 6, 7

Pericopis, 39

Perrhybris, as mimics of Ithomiines, coloration of male in P. malenka, 62;

as members of mimicry rings, 134, 135;

P. demophile, 151;

P. lorena, 151;

P. malenka, X. 4, 5, 6

Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails, characteristics of, 22, App. II;

as models for Oriental butterflies, 25;

absence of in Africa, 35;

as models in S. America, 43;

as models in N. America, 45

Phrissura, 36

Phyciodes, 38, 54

Physiological properties, possible connection of with pattern, 137

Pieridae, as models for Oriental butterflies, 28;

mimicry in African, 36;

mimicry in S. American, 43;

frequency of bird attacks on, 150

Planema epaea, 35, VII. 5;

P. macarista, sexual difference in, 34, VII. 1, 2;

mimicked by Elymnias phegea, 35;

by Pseudacraea eurytus, 126;

P. poggei, as model for planemoides female of Papilio dardanus, 31;

P. paragea, 126, VII. 4;

P. tellus, 126, VII. 3

Poison-eaters, see Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails

Polymorphism, in females of mimicking species, 13;

among females of P. dardanus, 30;

among females of P. polytes, 75

Population, conditions of equilibrium in mixed, 93

Poulton, 17;

on N. American mimetic butterflies, 45;

on the "Transparency group," 41;

on mimicry through agency of migratory birds, 53;

on Hypolimnas misippus, 66 note;

on the relation between mimetic forms of P. polytes, 90;

on predaceous insects, 105;

on relative proportion of different forms of Pseudacraea eurytus, 127;

on local variation in D. chrysippus, 132

Precis, 111, 122, 131;

P. octavia, seasonal dimorphism in, 131, VI. 11, 12

Prioneris, 110;

P. sita, 28

Pritchett, feeding experiments with lizards, 108

Protective resemblance, 8

Protogonius, as mimics of Ithomiines, 38;

as members of mimicry rings, 134, 135, 138;

P. tithoreides, X. 9

Pseudacraea, 59, 144;

P. boisduvali, 34, VI. 5;

P. eurytus, relative proportion of different forms in, 127;

polymorphism of in relation to model, 149 note;

var. hobleyi as mimic of Planema macarista, 35, 127, VII. 6, 7;

var. terra, as mimic of Planema tellus, 126, VII. 8;

var. obscura as mimic of Planema paragea, 126

Ray, on adaptation, 4, 6

Rodents, bearing on mimicry of recent genetic work with, 147

Satyrinae, transparency in S. American, 42

Sceleporus floridanus, 108

Schaus, on birds as enemies of butterflies, 112

Seasonal dimorphism, 130

Seitz, 44, 52, 58

Shelford, 56 note

S. American butterflies, mimicry among, 38

Sports, as foundation of mimetic resemblances, 70, 91, 143

Sweet-peas, experiments on, 91

Swynnerton, on contents of stomachs of birds, 114

Telipna sanguinea, 36

Terias brigitta, 35;

T. hecabe, 110

Thyridia, 40, XIV. 3

Tithorea pseudonyma, X. 10

"Transparency group," in S. America, 39

Trimen, on mimicry in African butterflies, 13

Tupaia ferruginea, 121

Variation, difficulty of initial, 63

Wade, on relative abundance of the three forms of P. polytes in Ceylon, 99

Wallace, on mimicry in Oriental butterflies, 12;

on the conditions of mimicry, 50;

on the females of P. polytes, 76;

on initial variation, 64

Warning colours, 10, 11

Weismann, 1, 2