Largo assai—very slow.
Largo di molto—very slow.
Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.
Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow as largo. (Cf. larghetto.)
Lentemente—slowly.
Lentando—with increasing slowness.
Très lentement—very slowly.
Lentissamente—very slowly.
Lentissamamente—very slowly.
Lento assai—very slowly.
Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.
Lento di molto—very slowly.
Andante affettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos.
Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.
Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.
Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.
Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.
Andante con moto—slightly faster than andante.
Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.
Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).
Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo as allegro; (lit. an andante in the style of allegro).
Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.
Allegrissimo—much faster than allegro. (The superlative degree of allegro.)
Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.
Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.
Allegro assai (very allegro)—faster than allegro.
Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.
Allegro con brio—an allegro played in brilliant style. Faster than allegro.
Allegro con fuoco—an allegro played with fire, i.e., with extreme animation. Faster than allegro.
Allegro con spirito—an allegro performed with spirit.
Allegro con moto—faster than allegro.
Allegro di bravura—an allegro performed in brilliant style, i.e., demanding great skill in execution.
Allegro furioso (furiously)—quicker than allegro; very brilliant.
Allegro giusto—an allegro movement, but in exact rhythm.
Allegro ma grazioso—an allegro played in graceful style.
Allegro (ma) non tanto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non troppo—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non presto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro moderato—slower than allegro.
Allegro vivace—faster than allegro.
Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.
Presto (ma) non troppo—a presto movement, but not too rapid.
111. There are certain terms which indicate a modification of the normal tempo of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below.
(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual retard.
Ritenente, (rit.), ritenuto (rit.), ritardando (rit.), rallentando (rall.), slentando.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slower at once.
Più lento (lit. more slowly), meno mosso (lit. less movement).
3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.
Largando, allargando. These words are both derived from largo, meaning large, broad.
(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59, Sec. 127.)
The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms as più lento and meno mosso indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind between rallentando and ritardando on the one hand, and ritenuto and ritenente on the other, considering the former (rall. and rit.) to indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter (ritenuto and ritenente) to indicate a definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction.
(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
Accelerando, affrettando (this term implies some degree of excitement also), stringendo, poco a poco animato.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.
Più allegro, più tosto, più mosso, stretto, un poco animato.
112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such expression as a tempo (lit. in time), a tempo primo (lit. in the first time), tempo primo, or tempo.
113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato) means literally in robbed time, i.e., duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the score.
The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), a piacere, and a capriccio, also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer. Ad libitum means at liberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and a capriccio, at the caprice (of the performer).
114. The term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato (and of the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally in exact time. (Tempo giusto is sometimes translated quite rapidly,[29] but this is very unusual.)
115. L'istesso tempo means—at the same rate of speed. E.g., when a measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried through the entire movement.
116. Tenuto (ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its full value.
117. Veloce means—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages (e.g., cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure rhythm. The words rapidamente, brillante and volante (flying) have the same meaning as veloce.
118. The following expressions referring to tempo are also in common use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined.
Con moto—with motion; i.e., not too slow.
Pesante—slowly, heavily.
Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.
Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.
Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.
Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.
Animando, animato, con anima—with animation.
Agitato—agitated.
119. Tempo di marcia is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) as equivalent to andante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives tempo di menuetto as equivalent to allegretto, and tempo di valso as equivalent to allegro moderato (which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo than allegretto).
CHAPTER XIII
Dynamics
120. The word dynamics (cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power (i.e., the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to dynamics are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. Thus dynamics, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor.
The following words referring to dynamics are in common use:
Pianisissimo (ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of piano.)
Pianissimo (pp)—very softly. (The superlative of piano.)
Piano (p)—softly.
Mezzo piano (mp)—medium softly.
Mezzo forte (mf)—medium loudly.
Forte (f)—loudly (lit. strong).
Fortissimo (ff)—very loudly. (The superlative of forte.)
Fortisissimo (fff)—as loudly as possible.
The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both piano and forte seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even five p's or f's is not desirable.
121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as e.g.,
Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.
Piano assai—very softly.
Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.
Forte piano (fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.
As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.
122. The terms sforzando, forzando, sforzato and forzato all indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz, and sfz, the abbreviation being placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The signs and are also commonly used to indicate such an accent.
In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the mark sf occurring in the midst of a piano passage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a forte passage.
123. The words rinforzando and rinforzato (abb.—rinf. and rfz.) mean literally reinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of sforzando, etc.
124. Crescendo (abb.—cresc. or ) means a gradual increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean loud, nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such as subito, or molto.
Broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo: (1) that in which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be varied after it begins. Thus e.g., the human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the tone has once been sounded, and a crescendo effect is therefore possible only in a passage, in rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed most strikingly, as e.g., when a long passage begins very softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
The difference between sforzando, rinforzando, and crescendo should now be noted: sforzando indicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder; rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; but crescendo indicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
125. Certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.
Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.
Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.
Crescendo e diminuendo—same as cresc. poi dim.
Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.
Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker in tempo.
Crescendo ed affrettando—gradually louder and faster.
Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.
126. Decrescendo (decresc. or ) means a gradual diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of crescendo. The word diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo.
Decrescendo (or diminuendo) al pianissimo means—decrease gradually in power until the pianissimo (or very soft) point is reached.
127. A number of terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo are in use. The most common of these are:—mancando, moriente,[30] morendo, perdendo (from perdere—to lose), perdendosi, calando, and smorzando.[31] Such expressions are usually translated—"gradually dying away."
128. In piano music the abbreviation Ped. indicates that the damper pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately indicated by the sign .
The term senza sordini is also occasionally found in old editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, while con sordini shows that it is to be released. These expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments, in which the term con sordini means that the mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas.
129. The words una corda (lit.—one string) indicate that the "soft pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words tre corde (lit. three strings) or tutte le corde (all the strings) show that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence una corda), all three strings (tre corde) being struck again after the release of the pedal.
130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject of dynamics are:
Con alcuna licenza—with some degree of license.
Con amore—with tenderness.
Con bravura—with boldness.
Con celerita—with rapidity.
Con delicato—with delicacy.
Con energico—with energy.
Con espressione—with expression.
Con forza—with force.
Con fuoco—with fire and passion.
Con grand' espressione—with great expression.
Con grazia—with grace.
Con melinconia—with melancholy.
Con passione—with passion.
Con spirito—with spirit.
Con tenerezza—with tenderness.
Delicato—delicately.
Dolce—sweetly, gently.
Dolcissimo—most sweetly.
Dolce e cantabile—gently and with singing tone.
Dolente }
Doloroso } plaintively or sorrowfully.
Espressivo—expressively.
Grandioso—grandly, pompously.
Grazioso—gracefully.
Giocoso—humorously, (cf. jocose).
Giojoso—joyfully, (cf. joyous).
Lacrimando, lacrimoso—sorrowfully.
Legato—smoothly.
Leggiero—lightly.
Leggierissimo—most lightly; almost a staccato.
Lusingando—caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.
Maesta, maestoso—majestically.
Martellando, martellato—strongly accented, (lit.—hammered).
Marziale—martial—war-like.
Mesto—pensively.
Mezzo voce—with half voice.
Misterioso—mysteriously.
Parlando—well accented or enunciated; applied to melody playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)
Pastorale—in simple and unaffected style, (lit.—pastoral, rural).
Pomposo—pompously.
Precipitoso—precipitously.
Recitativo—well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p. 78.)
Risoluto—firmly, resolutely.
Scherzando, scherzoso, etc.—jokingly. These terms are derived from the word scherzo meaning a musical joke.
Semplice—simply.
Sempre marcatissimo—always well marked, i.e., strongly accented.
Sentimento—with sentiment.
Solenne—solemn.
Sotto voce—in subdued voice.
Strepitoso—precipitously.
Tranquillo—tranquilly.
Tristamente—sadly.
131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus e.g., crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando, is seen to mean merely—"increase gradually to forte and accelerate a very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly in the interpretation of such expressions.
CHAPTER XIV
Terms Relating to Forms and Styles
132. A form in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is easily recognized by the ear. Thus e.g., although every fugue is different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the fugue form has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word form is therefore seen to be somewhat synonymous with the word plan as used in architecture; it is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.
Speaking broadly we may say that form in any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
133. The primal basis of form is the repetition of some characteristic effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.
134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the difference in meaning between the terms form and style: A form is a plan for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a style is merely a manner of writing. Thus e.g., the fugue is a form—i.e., it is a plan, which although capable of variation in details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but counterpoint is merely a style or manner of writing (just as Gothic architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of several forms.
135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to explain in simple language certain terms relating to forms and styles which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined, as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette—"The Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)
136. In a very general way there may be said to be two styles of musical composition, the monophonic (or homophonic)—the one-voiced—and the polyphonic—the many voiced. The polyphonic[32] style antedates the monophonic historically.
137. In monophonic music there is one voice which has a pronounced melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera, modern piano piece, etc., are also largely monophonic, though polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.
138. In polyphonic music each voice is to a certain extent melodically interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint, canon, round, fugue, etc., are all polyphonic in style. The word contrapuntal is often used synonymously with polyphonic.
139. Counterpoint is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining melodies."
The word counterpoint comes from the three words "punctus contra punctum," meaning "point against point." The word point as here used refers to the punctus—one of the neumae of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes.
Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
140. Imitation is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the term strict imitation is applied, but if only approximate, then the term free imitation is used in referring to it. The repetition need not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be strict; on the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in which the third part comes in an octave lower than the first part.
141. A canon is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part canon is given in Fig. 57.
CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE
The word canon means law, and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable. It is because of this non-flexibility that the canon is so little used as a form at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception, and this the canon does not do. For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the form as a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. The result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design, and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
142. The common school round is an example of canon, each voice repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice is going on with its melody. The round is therefore defined as a variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the subject.
143. The fugue (Latin, fuga = flight) is a form of contrapuntal composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key, i.e., a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called "the question"), but is usually not so.
The fugue differs from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on. The fugue is not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in form and yet be very poor music; this same statement might of course be made about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
CHAPTER XV
Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (Continued)
144. A phrase is a short musical thought (at least two measures in length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The typical phrase is four measures long. The two-measure phrase is often called section. The word phrase as used in music terminology corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
145. A period is a little piece of music typically eight measures long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined divisions of a larger form. The period (when complete in itself) is the smallest monophonic form.
The essential characteristic of the regular period is the fact that it usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called antecedent and consequent or thesis and antithesis), the first phrase giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key, deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
The second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half, in all respects except the cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements—rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) the more obvious the form of the period, while the more complex the music, the less regular the period.
146. The primary forms are built up by combining two or more periods.
The small two-part primary form (often called song-form or Lied-form) consists of two periods so placed that the second constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity. The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven) quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are "Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
The small three-part primary form is like the two-part primary form except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure phrase.
The large two- and three-part primary forms usually have sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise similar in construction.
These various primary forms are used in constructing many varieties of compositions, among them the theme and variations, the polka, the waltz, the march, etc., as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text.
147. A theme is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue, as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are made, as e.g., in the familiar theme and variations.
148. Thematic development consists in taking a short theme (or several short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a composition. Fig. 60 b, c, d, e, and f show how the theme given in Fig. 60 (a) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as analyzed in Appendix E.
For further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme, see—Christiani—The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing themes have been adapted.
149. A rondo is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same form (i.e., not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme being separated by contrasting material.
The rondo is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first subject again; (6) second subject, in tonic key; (7) coda (or ending).
The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of all—the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of sonatas or sonatinas.
150. A suite is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to secure contrast of movement—a quick dance being usually followed by a slower one.
The suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first form in several movements to be generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
The suite was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord, clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvořák, Lachner, Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
Allemande—duple or quadruple measure.
Bolero—triple measure.
Bourée—duple or quadruple measure.
Chaconne—triple measure.
Courante—a very old dance in triple measure.
Csardas—Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
Gavotte—quadruple measure.
Gigue (or jig)—duple measure.
Habanera—Spanish dance in triple measure.
Minuet—slow dance in triple measure.
Mazurka—Polish dance in triple measure.
Polonaise—Polish dance in triple measure.
Rigaudon—lively dance in duple or triple measure.
Sarabande—triple measure.
Tarantella—swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
The allemande is especially interesting to students of music form because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the sonata-allegro (i.e., the first movement of the sonata). The sarabande and courante are likewise interesting as the prototypes of the second movement, and the bourée, minuet, etc., for their connection with the third movement.
152. The scherzo (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an independent piece.
153. A sonata is an instrumental composition of three or more movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its name from the fact that its first movement is cast in sonata-form. (See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)
When the sonata has four movements, these are usually arranged as follows:
1. A quick movement (allegro, presto, etc.), often preceded by a slower introduction.
2. A slow movement (largo, andante, adagio, etc.).
3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played.
4. A quick movement—the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of contrasting rhythms.
154. A trio is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin, and cello), while a quartet is a sonata for four instruments, the most common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins, viola, and violoncello.
The term chamber music is often applied to instrumental music for trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
The words trio and quartet are also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively, these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word trio is also applied to the middle section of minuets, scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only.
155. A concerto is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements in the concerto.