E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni,
and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
(http://www.pgdp.net/).
Thanks to Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67,
and to Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection
(http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com)
for the MIDI sequence of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3.

Transcriber's Note: This e-text contains Unicode characters representing music symbols (sharp, flat, and natural) that may not display properly in your browser or font. A mouse-hover description of these symbols has been provided, e.g.: A♭ G♯ C♮.

MUSIC NOTATION
AND TERMINOLOGY

By KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY
NEW YORK 1914

Copyright, 1914, by
THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY

PREFACE

The study of music notation and terminology by classes in conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more intelligent class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly and economically to others.

To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the author has been for several years gathering material from all available sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but will also enable him to see more clearly why certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their definition.

The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.

In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such words as note, tone, et cetera with at least a fair degree of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually begin to come, the need of reform must be felt by a fairly large number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.

It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.

It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H. Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox, Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable advice along certain specific lines.

K.W.G.

Oberlin Conservatory of Music, June, 1913

CONTENTS

Chapter I.—Some Principles of Correct Notation 1
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.

Chapter II.—Symbols of Music Defined 5
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.

Chapter III.—Symbols of Music Defined (continued) 8
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.

Chapter IV.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.

Chapter V.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (continued) 17
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.

Chapter VI.—Embellishments 22
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.

Chapter VII.—Scales 27
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.

Chapter VIII.—Scales (continued) 33
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
95. Whole-step scale.

Chapter IX.—Auxiliary Words and Endings 42

Chapter X.—Measure 44
97. Definition.—Two essential characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and .

Chapter XI.—Tempo 48
104. Misuses of the word "time."
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
and "tempo."
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.

Chapter XII.—Tempo (continued) 52
110-119. Tempo-terms.

Chapter XIII.—Dynamics 56
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.

Chapter XIV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.

Chapter XV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (continued) 67
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.

Chapter XVI.—Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.

Chapter XVII.—Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval—harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.

Chapter XVIII.—Chords, Cadences, etc. 87
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.

Chapter XIX.—Miscellaneous Terms 95

Chapter XX.—Miscellaneous Terms (continued) 98

Appendix A.—The History of Music Notation 101

Appendix B.—Musical Instruments 112
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.

Appendix C.—Acoustics 131
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.

Appendix D.—Terminology Reform 139

Appendix E.—Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149

Pronouncing Index 159

CHAPTER I

1. The note (from nota—Latin—a mark or sign) consists of either one, two, or three parts, () these being referred to respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called tail or cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] The hook is always on the right side.[2]

2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following rules for turning stems apply: (1) If the note-head is below the third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is above the third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is on the third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The following examples will illustrate these points.

[Listen]

3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by one performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in common as in Fig. 3.

[Listen]

[Listen]

4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by one cross-stroke. In such a case all the stems must of course be turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus stroked may be of the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.

[Listen]

In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)

5. Rests, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the third space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.

6. The G clef should be begun at the second line rather than below the staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by dividing it into two parts, thus, . The descending stroke crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.

7. The F clef is made either thus, , or thus, the dots being placed one on either side of the fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef marks. The C clef has also two forms, and .

8. The sharp is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, ♯. The sharp should never be made thus, #.

The double sharp is made either thus or *, the first form being at present the more common.

9. The flat is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The double flat consists of two flats,[3] ♭♭. The natural or cancel is made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus ♮.

10. The tie usually connects the heads of notes, thus .

11. The dot after a note always appears on a space, whether the note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space above that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below it if the following note is lower.

[Listen]

CHAPTER II

13. The extent of the staff may be increased either above or below by the addition of short lines called leger lines,[4] and notes may be written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.

14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines if any) are often referred to as staff degrees, i.e., each separate line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."

15. A clef[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, e.g., the G clef shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.

The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p. 101.

16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the treble staff, and when the F clef is used, as the bass staff. Such expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]

17. The movable C clef or , formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes, viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello, viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.

The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is placed represents "middle C."

18. A sharp is a character which causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it otherwise would.

19. A flat is a character that causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion here.)

20. A double-sharp causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp. Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any flat.

CHAPTER III

21. The natural[8] (sometimes called cancel) annuls the effect of previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is shown.

22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is written. They are called collectively the key-signature.

23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key. Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as surely in E minor.

[Listen]

24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring in the course of the composition (i.e., after the key signature) are called accidentals, whether they actually cause a staff degree to represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15, measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.

[Listen]

25. In the case of a tie across a bar an accidental remains in force until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.

[Listen]

26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from "The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.