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X.
POST-MEDIÆVAL INSTRUMENTS.
Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which originated during the Middle Ages, but which attained their highest popularity at a somewhat later period.
About 300 years ago the lute (Fig. 39) was almost as popular as is the pianoforte at the present day. Originally it had eight thin catgut strings arranged in four pairs, each pair being tuned in unison; so that its open strings produced four tones; but in the course of time more strings were added. Until the sixteenth century twelve was the largest number, or rather, six pairs. Eleven appears for some centuries to have been the most usual number of strings; these produced six tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a single string. The latter, called the chanterelle, was the highest. According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use during the seventeenth century had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs, of which six pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by the side of it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a theorbo. The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets consisting of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper distances required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals. The illustration (Fig. 40) represents a lute-player of the late fifteenth century. The order of tones adopted for the open strings varied in different centuries and countries; and this was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most common practice was to write the music on six lines, the upper line representing the first string; the second line, the second string, etc., and to mark with letters on the lines the frets at which the fingers ought to be placed—a indicating the open string, b the first fret, c the second fret, and so on.
Fig. 39.—Lute. Italian (Venetian). Beginning of 17th
century.
L. 32½ in., W. 12 in. No. 1125-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 40.—Angel playing a Lute, after
an oil painting by Ambrogio da Predis.
Late 15th century.
National Gallery.
Fig. 41.—Archlute. Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos
Street, London, 1762.”
L. 49½ in., W. 14½ in.
No. 9-’71.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The lute was made of various sizes, according to the purpose for which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of the smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The theorbo, or double-necked lute which appears to have come into use during the sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings situated over the finger-board a number of others running at the left side of the finger-board which could not be shortened by the fingers, and which produced the bass tones.
The archlute is a large theorbo with a peculiar arrangement of the strings (Fig. 41). Several of them were doubled, the additional string being tuned an octave higher than the other. The process of tuning such instruments was evidently troublesome and tedious. Mattheson, the quaint contemporary of Handel, in his “Das Neu-eröffnete Orchestre,” Hamburg, 1713, remarks:—"If a lutenist attains the age of eighty, you may be sure he has tuned sixty years; and the worst of it is that among a hundred players, especially of the amateurs, scarcely two are capable of tuning with accuracy. Now there is something amiss with the strings; now with the frets; and now again with the screws; so that I have been told that in Paris it costs as much money to keep a lute as to keep a horse.” Also Mace, an enthusiastic admirer of the lute, testifies to the difficulty of keeping the instrument in proper condition; for his treatise on the lute and theorbo (contained in “Musick’s Monument,” London, 1676) is replete with rules for stringing, tuning, cleaning, repairing, etc. And, as regards preserving the instrument, he gives the advice—"You shall do well, ever when you lay it by in the day-time, to put it into a bed that is constantly used, between the rug and blanket.”
The chitarrone is a theorbo with an extraordinarily long neck, by which the length of the eight bass strings is considerably increased (Fig. 42). The largest instruments of this kind were made some centuries ago, in Rome. They were used in the theatre for accompanying the voice, before the Clavicembalo, or Harpsichord, was introduced for this purpose. The finest instruments of the lute kind were made in Italy, especially at Bologna, Rome, Venice, and Padua. Many of the manufacturers in Italy were, however, foreigners. Evelyn, in his Diary (May 21, 1645), speaking of Bologna, says, “This place has also been celebrated for lutes made by the old masters, Mollen [Maler ?], Hans Frey, and Nicholas Sconvelt, which were of extraordinary price; the workmen were chiefly Germans.” One of the earliest and most celebrated of these makers was Lucas Maler (or “Laux Maler” as he inscribed his name on his instruments). He lived at Bologna about 1415.
Fig. 42.—Chitarrone. Italian. Made by
Buchenberg in Rome, anno 1614.
L. 74 in.
No. 190-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Other celebrated lute-makers[8] were:—
Ludwig Porgt, Regensburg, 1525.
Hanns Gerle, Nuremberg, b. about 1505, d. 1599.
Hans Neusedler, Nuremberg, d. 1563.
Sebastian Rauser, Verona, working about 1590 to 1605.
Mattheus Buchenberg, Rome, working about 1592-1619.
Hanns Fichtholdt, Ingoldstadt (?), about 1612; his lutes, the backs of which are made with narrow strips of wood, in the Italian manner, were formerly much prized by connoisseurs.
Paolo Belami, Paris, about 1612, probably an Italian. His lutes were highly valued.
Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, b. 1641, d. 1719.
Antonio Castaro, Rome, about 1615.
Christofilo Rochi, Padua, about 1620.
Sebastian Rochi, Venice, about 1620.
Clays von Pommersbach, Cologne, probably during the sixteenth century.
Magnus Tieffenbrucker, Venice, latter half of seventeenth century.
Wendelin Tieffenbrucker, Padua, working about 1572-1611, and Leonhard Tieffenbrucker, Padua (?), during the sixteenth century; their lutes were rather flat and long in body.
Michael Hartung, Padua, working about 1602 to 1624; he was a pupil of Leonhard Tieffenbrucker.
Raphael Mest, Füssen, working about 1610 to 1650; said to have been pupil of Michael Hartung.
Johann Christian Hoffmann, Leipzig, working about 1710 to 1750; his lutes were exported to Holland and England.
Martin Schott, Prague, latter half of seventeenth century.
Sebastian Rauch, Prague, working about 1700 to 1724.
Matthias Hummel, Nuremberg, end of seventeenth century.
Sebastian Schelle, Nuremberg, working about 1700 to 1745; his lutes were much valued, not only in Germany, but also in other European countries.
There used to be in Italy various kinds of mandolines, of which the Milanese and the Neapolitan were the most common. The first-named had usually ten strings, constituting five pairs. The Neapolitan mandolino had eight strings, constituting four pairs. The strings were usually twanged with a quill. Mozart, in his “Don Giovanni,” has made use of the Neapolitan mandolino in the serenade; but, as the instrument has fallen into disuse, at least in most countries except Italy, the part written for it by Mozart is now generally played on the violin, pizzicato. The mandolino is now often strung with catgut strings. It resembles a diminutive lute; but its fingerboard has metal frets, and its strings are fastened to little ivory pins at the end of the body, instead of being looped through holes in the bridge. The convex back of the mandoline is deeper than that of the lute. It is one of the handsomest musical instruments.
Besides the mandoline the Italians had various instruments in shape resembling the lute. Of this description are, for instance, the mandora, mandorina, and the pandurina. The mandoline differs from the pandurina chiefly in having a rounder and deeper body, and in having the tuning-pegs placed at the back of the head; while the pandurina has a sort of scroll, with the tuning-pegs situated sideways, similar to the old English cither (Fig. 43). The mandora had usually for each tone two strings, which were of catgut and wire; and there were eight pairs of them. The mandorina had four wire strings.
The guitar (Fig. 44) is evidently an importation from the East, but it has undergone various modifications since its adoption by European nations. It was an instrument of the Moors in Spain, and became known in France about the 11th century. The French called it formerly guiterne, and the English gittern, ghittern, and gythorn. At the time of Henry VIII. we find it occasionally called “the Spanish viol.” At an early period it probably had the oval shape of the kuitra, still in use by the Arab musicians in Tunis and Algiers. In Spain it had formerly also the name of vihuela.
Instruction books for the old Spanish guitar have been written by:—Ludovico Milan, Valencia, 1534; Sixtus Kargel, Mayence, 1569; Joannes Carolus, Lerida, 1626; Pietro Milioni, Rome, 1638; Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz, Madrid, 1672, etc. The number of guitar manuals published during the 18th century is enormous. Germany alone contributed above fifty.
Fig. 43.—Pandurina. On the back is carved a
group consisting of Juno, Minerva and Venus.
French. Second half of 16th century. L. 16½ in.,
W. 4½ in. No. 219-’66.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 44.—Guitar. French (?). 17th century. L. 40⅜in., W.
11⅞ in. No. 676-’72.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 45.—Quinterna, or Chiterna. Inscribed “Joachim Tielke
in Hamburg, 1539,” but of later date.
L. 25½ in., W. 9⅜ in. No. 1122-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The guitar was a fashionable instrument in England, played by ladies, in the time of Charles II. On the Continent it generally had ten catgut strings, of which two were always tuned in unison. At the present day it has six strings, the two of which are of silk covered with silver wire, and the others are of catgut.
A species of guitar is the quinterna, or chiterna, somewhat resembling a violin in shape (Fig. 45). It was used about two centuries ago, especially in Italy, by the lower orders of musicians and comedians for accompanying their vocal performances. It was played with the fingers instead of a plectrum.
The cithern, cittern, or cither (Fig. 46), which during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was a popular instrument in England, where it was often played in the barbers’ shops, had four pairs of wire strings.
Its top generally terminated in a grotesquely-carved human head. The cithers made in England during the eighteenth century have generally at the top some inlaid ornamentation in ivory, mother-of-pearl, or fancy wood.
Although not well suited for the performance of harmonious combinations, since its wire strings are twanged with a quill, and therefore only such chords can be properly produced as are on strings following each other in uninterrupted succession, the cither, nevertheless, possesses considerable charms.
There are several conjectures as to the derivation of the German name zither or zitter. Some suppose it to be from “zittern,” on account of the peculiarly trembling sound of the instrument. During the first centuries of the Christian era the word cythera (cithara) implied almost any stringed instrument, especially if the strings were twanged with a plectrum, or with the fingers. It is also noteworthy, though perhaps only as a singular coincidence, that the Persians and Hindus have a three-stringed species of zither, which they call sitar, from the Persian word si, “three,” and tar, “a string.” The Hindu sitar is, however, now usually mounted with five strings.
The harp-guitar and harp-theorbo (Fig. 47) were manufactured in England with the intention of improving the sound of the guitar and theorbo by adopting for them the body of the harp.
There was also another invention of this kind, called the harp-lute.
The harp-ventura (Fig. 48) was invented at the beginning of the last century by Signor Angelo Benedetto Ventura, professor of music, and teacher of the guitar and harp-lute to the Princess Charlotte of Wales. The example given has a back of satin wood, and sides of turtle shell; the belly and pillar are painted and gilt. It has nineteen catgut strings, six of which are covered with wire.
The banduria (Fig. 49) a lyre-shaped guitar, was often strung with wire instead of catgut, and played with a plectrum generally made of tortoise-shell. The specimen illustrated is made of various woods, has three sound-holes, a machine head, and twelve catgut strings tuned in pairs.
The Spanish peasants call their rustic guitar vihuela; and it appears probable that the “gittrons that are called Spanish vialls,” mentioned in the list of musical instruments of Henry VIII. (Harl. MSS. 1419, p. 202) were small guitars of this description.
The Irish harp (clarseth) illustrated in Fig. 50, belonged formerly to a celebrated Irish harper. A similar one, which is in the possession of the Marquess of Kildare, bears the date 1671.
Fig. 47. Harp Theorbo. Made by Harley. English. About 1800.
L. 36 in. No. 250-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 48.—Harp Ventura. So-called from the inventor, Signor Ventura.
English. Early 19th century. L. 33 in. No. 248-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum
Considering the scarcity of the old Irish clarseth, mention may be made of a fine specimen formerly in the collection of Irish antiquities belonging to Thomas Crofton Croker, from which it was purchased, in the year 1854, at an auction in London, by Thomas Bateman, Esq. It bears on its front the inscription, Made by John Kelly for the Rev. Charles Bunworth Baltdaniel, 1734. At the contentions or meetings of the bards of Ireland, between the years 1730 and 1750, which were generally held at Bruree, county Limerick, the Rev. Charles Bunworth was five times chosen umpire, or president. Although this harp is not of high antiquity, it is an interesting example of the ancient form and construction, and likewise of the ancient manner of ornamenting the instrument. A wood engraving of it, from a drawing by Maclise, is given in “A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities and Miscellaneous Objects preserved in the Museum of Thomas Bateman, at Lomberdale House, Derbyshire,” Bakewell, 1855. An account of the Irish harps deposited in the Museum of Dublin is to be found in “A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,” by W. R. Wilde, Dublin, 1863. The illustrations of the Irish harp in the works of Bunting and similar writers may be supposed to be known to musicians.
The number of strings appears to have been greater on the older specimens recorded than on the later ones. Prætorius, in his “Syntagma musicum,” etc., vol. ii., Wolfenbüttel, 1619, gives an illustration of the Irish harp, in which it is represented with forty-three strings. He describes the instrument as having a pleasant resonance, and being constructed with a considerable degree of ingenuity. The illustration exhibits the same shape, with the fore-bar bent outwards, which is shown in the present specimen.
Some harps after the model of the old Irish clarseth, which are painted and gilt, were made in Dublin in the beginning of the last century.
The small harp of the middle ages of Central and Western Europe, depicted in old sculptures and paintings, generally exhibits the front-bar of its frame somewhat bent outwardly, much as is the case with the Irish clarseth. Gradually the number of its strings was increased; and, likewise the strength of the frame for resisting the tension of the strings. The front-bar of our harp is straight, or a front-pillar. Until the seventeenth century only the diatonic series of intervals was properly obtainable on the instrument. The performer had, however, a method of producing occasionally a semitone by pressing the finger against the string towards the end, much in the same manner in which the Burmese produce chromatic intervals on the soung. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Tyrolian harp makers adopted little plates with hooks, which could be moved so as to press upon the strings, and thereby shorten them, for the production of the semitones, more rapidly and unerringly than could be done by the fingers. A French harp of the period of Louis XVI.. is illustrated (Fig. 51). It is carved and gilt in the style of Gouthière, and decorated with oak foliage and acorns; at the top of the pillar is a figure of a Cupid.
Students who examine the old instruments above described will probably wish to know something about their quality of tone. “How do they sound? Might they still be made effective in our present state of the art?” are questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer having such instruments brought before him. A few words bearing on these questions may therefore not be out of place here.
Fig. 52.—Violin. Said to have belonged to James I.
English. Early 17th century. L. 23¼ in., W. 8 in.
No. 34-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 53.—Angel playing a Viol, after an oil
painting by Ambrogio da Predis. Late
15th century.
National Gallery.
It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of the art of music has greater progress been made during the last century than in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless, there are people who think that we have also lost something here which might with advantage be restored. Our various instruments by being more and more perfected are becoming too much alike in quality of sound, or in that character of tone which the French call timbre, and the Germans Klangfarbe, and which professor Tyndall in his lectures on sound has translated clang-tint. Every musical composer knows how much more suitable one clang-tint is for the expression of a certain emotion than another. Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many respects, possessed this variety of clang-tint to a high degree. Neither were they on this account less capable of expression than the modern ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As to lutes and cithers the collection at South Kensington contains specimens so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret that these instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.
As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were certainly superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely a musical instrument which can be called beautiful. The old lutes, cithers, viols, dulcimers, etc., are not only elegant in shape but are also often tastefully ornamented with carvings, designs in marquetry, and painting.
Of the stringed instruments used in our orchestra, the violin (Fig. 52) is the one which has been longest preserved entirely unaltered. Its name (Italian, violino), a diminutive of viola, suggests that our tenor (viola di braccio) is the older instrument of the two. The viol (Fig. 53, facing p. 104) in use about three centuries ago, was however somewhat different in shape. As the oldest-known instruments played with a bow, which in European countries preceded the violin, may be mentioned:—The rebec, which, it appears, was first popular in Spain; the crwth of the Welsh; the fidla of the Norwegian, which, in shape somewhat resembled the crwth, and which, with some slight modifications, is still occasionally to be found in Iceland, where it is called langspiel; and the fithele of the Anglo-Saxons.
Such were the instruments from which our violin has gradually been developed, until it attained, in the seventeenth century, that degree of perfection which has never since been surpassed. The violin makers whose instruments are still most highly valued are:—Antonio Amati, whose most flourishing period dates between the years 1592 and 1619; Nicolo Amati, the nephew of the preceding, 1662-1692; Giuseppe Guarneri, 1690-1707; Antonio Stradivari, 1700-1725; and Jakob Stainer, 1650-1670. All these celebrated makers, except Jakob Stainer, were Italians, living at Cremona. Jakob Stainer (or Jacobus Steiner) was a native of Absam, a village near Innsbruck in the Tyrol. Few musical instruments have experienced so great an increase in price as the violins of these celebrated makers. Stainer used himself to carry his violins to the monasteries situated in the neighbourhood of Absam, where he lived. He sold them at 40 florins apiece. It was not until after his death that his workmanship was duly appreciated.
The viola da gamba (French, basse de viole; German, Kniegeige) derives its name from its being held between the knees of the performer (Figs. 54 and 55). It was the predecessor of the violoncello, and was made with frets. It was a favourite instrument in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and even ladies played it occasionally. In England it was called base viol, and also viol-de-gambo. Sir Toby Belch, in Shakespeare’s “Twelfth Night,” says of Sir Andrew Aguecheek:—
"He plays o’ the viol-de-gamboys, and speaks three or four languages word for word without book, and hath all the good gifts of nature."
Fig. 54.—Viola da Gamba. Italian. About 1600.
H. 48 in., W. 14 in. No. 7360-’61.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 56.—Viola Di Bardone, or Baryton, With Bow.
Inscribed “Jaques Sainprae, à Berlin.” German.
17th century. L. 54 in., W. 16½ in. No. 1444, 1444ᵃ-’70.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Among the English public performers on the viola da gamba are recorded a Mrs. Sarah Ottey, in the year 1723, and a Miss Ford in 1760. Carl Friedrich Abel, a German, who lived in London during the latter half of the eighteenth century, was the last performer of celebrity on this instrument. Johann Sebastian Bach has employed it in his admirable “Passionsmusik des Matthæus"; and there are some fine “Suites,” still occasionally to be met with, composed for it by M. de Caix d’Herveloix, published in the year 1710. The tone of the viola da gamba is rather nasal, but sweet and expressive; indeed, it is to be regretted that this charming instrument has fallen into disuse. There is, however, a gamba stop in the organ, which resembles the famous vox humana stop, and which has recently been much favoured by organ builders.
The violoncello came into competition with the viola da gamba at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and has now entirely superseded its predecessor.
A viola di bardone in the Museum (Fig. 56) has a neck of carved and pierced box-wood, terminating in a figure of Apollo playing the lyre; the principal finger-board is of ivory, engraved and inlaid with ebony and tortoiseshell, with figures of Jupiter and Juno, and a lady playing a lute; the second finger-board is also of pierced and engraved ivory. The instrument has four catgut and fourteen metal sympathetic strings, and a double wrest. It was made by Jaques Sainprae, of Berlin, and is said to have belonged to Quanz, music master of Frederick the Great.
The most accomplished performers on the viola di bardone were Anton Lidl of Vienna (to whom is sometimes erroneously ascribed the invention of this instrument) and Karl Franz, a musician of the band of Prince Esterhazy, about the middle of the 18th century. Lidl played on the viola di bardone in concerts in England during the year 1776. Joachim Tielke of Hamburg, the manufacturer of a specimen in the Museum, was an instrument maker whose lutes were much esteemed on account of their fine tone, and their elegant ornamentation. He made them of ebony inlaid with ivory, mother-of-pearl, silver, and gold.
Joseph Haydn wrote sixty-three compositions for the viola di bardone by order of Prince Esterhazy, who was himself a performer on this instrument, and who admired it greatly. Its tone is soft and very expressive, but rather tremulous; owing to this quality, probably, it was also called viola di fagotto. It never became very popular, since its rather complicated construction offered too many difficulties in its treatment. In Germany it was generally called Baryton.
The viola d’amore (Fig. 57) was often strung entirely with wire. It appears to have been a novelty to Evelyn, for he records in his Diary of November 20th, 1679, “I dined with Mr. Slingsby, Master of the Mint, with my wife, invited to hear music, which was exquisitely performed by four of the most renowned masters: Du Prue, a Frenchman, on the lute; Signor Bartholomeo, an Italian, on the harpsichord; Nicholao, on the violin; but above all, for its sweetness and novelty, the viol d’amore of five wire strings played on with a bow, being but an ordinary violin played on lyre-way by a German.” Mattheson ("Das Neu-Eröffnete Orchestre,” Hamburg, 1713) describes the viola d’amore as being mounted with four wire strings, and with one catgut string for the highest tone.
Fig. 57.—Viola d’Amore. Probably English. Late 17th
century.
L. 27½ in. No. 154-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 58.—Double-Bass, with Bow. Known as “The Giant.” Italian. 17th century.
L. 103 in., W. 42 in. No. 487-’72.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
He praises its sweetness of sound, but does not mention the sympathetic strings. The transformation of the wire-strung viola d’amore into the so-called psaltery or sultana, which has no sympathetic strings, is indicated in the following statement by Sir John Graham Dalyell ("Musical Memoirs of Scotland,” Edinburgh, 1849), “The instrument was first introduced in public in London during the year 1715, when it was heard between the acts of an opera. It was known in Scotland in the middle of the century, and a taste for it was probably encouraged by the performance of Passerini, an Italian resident in Edinburgh, in the year 1752, when it was said to be a new instrument called viole d’amour. Passerini was manager of the Gentleman’s and St. Cecilia Concert, where he and his wife had a permanent engagement as skilled musicians. He played solos and accompanied singing with the instrument. Perhaps the viole d’amour underwent several modifications, as its name was changed to psaltery, in the belief of its being the ancient instrument so denominated, which is quite different according to most authorities, not belonging to the fidicinal tribe. In 1754 a concert for the new instrument called the psaltery was announced for Signor Carusi’s benefit concert in Edinburgh, and performed by Pasquali, another Italian musician, also resident there. From its soft and simple nature it was eulogised in 1762 as unequalled for delicacy and sweetness. I knew a lady many years ago in Edinburgh who played melodies with great delicacy on this instrument, which was strung with wire, and had frets on the finger-board.” From these accounts it would appear that the viola d’amore strung entirely with wire was not much used in England before the year 1700, although it evidently existed in this country in the seventeenth century.
The double-bass (Italian, contrebasso, violone; French, contrebasse; German, grosse Bassgeige, Kontrabass) is either four-stringed or three-stringed. A three-stringed example known as “The Giant” presented by Dragonetti to the Duke of Leinster, and given by the latter to the Museum, is illustrated in Fig. 58.
Dragonetti, the celebrated virtuoso on the double-bass, came to England in the year 1794. His favourite instrument, upon which he played in public concerts, was a “Gaspar di Salo,” which he obtained from the Convent of St. Pietro at Vicenza, and which he never could be induced to part with, although £800, it is said, was offered him for it by one of his rich and enthusiastic pupils in England. After the death of Dragonetti this bass, and another valuable one by Stradivarius, were sent back to Italy, he having bequeathed them in his will to the town of Venice. Dragonetti died in the year 1846 at his house in Leicester Square, at the age of eighty-three. A year before his death he was still able to assist in the public performances at the Beethoven Festival in Bonn. His friend H. Philipps mentions in his “Musical Recollections” that the ends of Dragonetti’s fingers had gradually become quite flat and deformed from playing.
Some double-basses of extraordinarily large size are known to have been made in England. William Gardiner ("Music and Friends,” London, 1838, p. 70) mentions such an instrument, made by Martin in Leicester, which he saw in the year 1786, and which, if his statement may be relied upon, “was of such height that Mr. Martin was obliged to cut a hole in the ceiling to let the head through; so that it was tuned by going upstairs into the room above."
A sordino (French, pochette; German, Taschengeige) is illustrated in Fig. 59. About 300 years ago the sordino was kept by gentlemen in a case resembling a pen case, which they put in the pocket when they went to a singing party; and they used the instrument for insuring correct intonation while singing madrigals and catches. Kircher, in his “Musurgia Universalis,” Romæ, 1650, calls it linterculus, no doubt from its resemblance to a small boat.
Fig. 60 represents a bûche (German, Scheitholz) made by Fleurot, of the Val d’Ajol, in the Vosges Mountains, early in the last century.
Fig. 59.—Sordino, or Pochette. Probably German. Late 17th or early 18th century. L. 17½ in. No. 457-’83.
Fig. 60.—Bûche, or Scheitholz. Made by Fleurot, of the Val d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains.
Early 19th century. L. 27½ in. No. 210-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 61.—Virginal. Formerly belonging to Queen Elizabeth. Italian. Second half of 16th century. H. 8½ in., L. 65 in., D. 23 in.
No. 19-’87.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 62.—Virginal. Bears the arms of William, Duke of Cleves, Berg and Jülich, Count of La Marck and Ravensberg, and originally also
Duke of Guelderland (b. 1516, d. 1592). Flemish. Second half of 16th century. H. 16 in., W. 67 in., D. 28 in. No. 447-’96.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
At the present day the people twang the bûche with a quill; but in olden time it was played thus:—The performer, having placed the instrument on a table, twanged the strings with the thumb of his right hand, while he used his left hand in pressing down, by means of a little stick, those strings which are placed over the frets, and which, being tuned in unison, serve for producing the melody. The other strings, tuned a fifth lower, were occasionally struck as an accompaniment.
Primitive in construction, and imperfect for our present musical performances as the Scheitholz is, it nevertheless is interesting, not only on account of its popularity three centuries ago, but also because it is the prototype of the horizontal cither, which has come somewhat into vogue in the last century.
The most popular instruments played with a bow, in the seventeenth century, were the treble-viol, the tenor-viol, and the bass-viol. It was usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,” a case containing four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas Mace in his directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument” 1676, remarks, “Your best provision, and most complete, will be a good chest of viols, six in number, viz., two basses, two tenors, and two trebles, all truly and proportionately suited.” The violist, to be properly furnished with his requirements, had therefore to supply himself with a larger stock of instruments than the violinist of the present day.
The virginal (Figs. 61 and 62) is said to have obtained its name from having been intended especially to be played by young ladies. The statement of some writers that it was called virginal in compliment to Queen Elizabeth, is refuted by the fact of its being mentioned among the musical instruments of King Henry VIII., in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Probably the name was originally given to it in honour of the Virgin Mary, since the virginal was used by the nuns for accompanying their hymns addressed to the Holy Virgin. It was made of various sizes, but generally small in comparison with our square pianoforte. The Italians, about three hundred years ago, constructed a small portable instrument of this kind, which they called ottavino (or octavina) because its pitch was an octave higher than that of the clavicembalo, or harpsichord.
Queen Elizabeth was a performer on the virginal (see Fig. 61) as well as on the lute. Sir James Melville, the Scotch ambassador, records in his memoirs an interview with Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1564, in which he heard her play upon the virginal:—"Then sche asked wither the Quen (Mary of Scotland) or sche played best. In that I gaif hir the prayse.” During the Shakesperian age a virginal generally stood in the barbers’ shops for the amusement of the customers. The instrument had evidently retained its popularity at the time of the Great Fire of London; for Pepys (Diary, September 2nd, 1666) records:—"River full of lighters and boats taking in goods, and good goods swimming in the water; and only I observed that hardly one lighter or boat in three that had the goods of a house in, but there was a pair of virginalls in it."
The instrument has metal strings, one for each tone, which are twanged by means of small portions of quill, attached to slips of wood called “jacks,” and provided with thin metal springs. Its construction is therefore similar to that of the spinet and harpischord. Crowquills were most commonly used in the construction of such instruments; but other materials, as for instance leather, whalebone, and even elastic strips of metal, were occasionally adopted instead.
Fig. 63.—Spinet. Made by Annibale dei Rossi of Milan. Italian. Dated 1577. H. 11¼ in., L. 58¼ in., W. 22¼ in. No. 809-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 64.—Spinet. Signed “Johannes Player fecit.” English. About 1700. L. 59 in., W. 22½ in. No. 466-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 65.—Clavichord. Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit,
Braunschweig, anno 1751.” German. 18th century. H. 31 in.,
L. 70½ in., W. 22½
in. No.
339-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
There evidently prevailed, some centuries ago, much vagueness in the designation of certain stringed instruments with a key-board. The term clavichord seems to have not unfrequently been applied to any stringed instrument with a key-board, no matter what its interior construction might be. Johann Walther, in his “Musicalisches Lexicon,” Leipzig, 1732, describes the virginal (or “Virginale,” as he calls it), in these words:-"Ein Clavier vors Frauenzimmer” (a clavichord for ladies). The following brief explanation of the difference between the spinet and the clavichord may therefore be of interest to some inquirers.
The spinet (Italian, spinetta or spinetto; French, épinette) is said to have derived its name from the little quill (spina) used in its mechanism, which is the same as that of the harpsichord and the virginal, described before.
The more commonly-known spinet (Figs. 63 and 64) resembles in shape the harpsichord and the grand piano. It is, however, smaller than the harpsichord, and its key-board is placed in a somewhat oblique direction. The tone of the spinet was generally a fifth higher than that of the harpsichord.
The clavichord (Italian, clavicordo; German, Clavier, or Klavier), differs from the spinet inasmuch as it is of an oblong-square shape (Fig. 65), and especially in its being constructed with so-called tangents, i.e., metal pins which press under the strings when the keys are struck. The strings are of thin brass wire. The oldest specimens of the clavichord still extant are from three to four feet in length, and about two feet in width. The lower keys are black, and the upper ones are white. There is only a single string for each tone and its upper semitone; thus, there is but one string for C and C-sharp, and likewise for D and D-sharp, and so on. The semitone is produced by a second tangent, which touches the string at a place a little distant from that at which it is touched by the tangent producing the whole-tone. On being pressed under the string, the tangent divides it into two vibrating parts, one of which is considerably longer than the other and gives the sound. The other part is too short to be distinctly audible, and therefore does not very perceptibly interfere with the clearness of the sound. Moreover, its vibration is checked by a strip of cloth interlaced with the strings. It will easily be understood that of the two tangents, the one which most shortens the sounding part of the string, must produce a tone of a higher pitch than the other.
Such was the construction of the clavichord until about the year 1700, when it was improved in so far as that each key was supplied with a separate string. The clavichord is pre-eminently a German instrument. Although now almost entirely supplanted by the pianoforte, it is still occasionally to be met with in the house of the German village schoolmaster and of the country parson. Though but weak in sound, it admits of much expression; and most of the German classical composers who lived before the invention of the pianoforte preferred the clavichord to the harpsichord. In England it has never become popular. Considering the simplicity of its construction, it might be surmised that the price of a clavichord was generally very moderate. In the latter half of the eighteenth century the prices charged for such instruments by some of the best manufacturers were as follows:—Carl Lemme, in Brunswick, made clavichords of various qualities, which fetched from three to twelve Louis d’ors a-piece; he also made, for exportation to Batavia, clavichords with a compressed sounding-board, invented by his father in the year 1771; Krämer, in Göttingen, charged from four to fourteen Louis d’ors, according to size and finish; and Wilhelmi, in Cassel, charged from twenty to fifty thalers,—from about £3 to £7 10s.
Fig. 66.—Clavicembalo. Signed “Joanes Antonius Baffo, Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574. H. 9½ in., L. 83 in., W. 36 in. No. 6007-’59.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The clavicembalo (often designated merely cembalo) is called in German “Flügel,” on account of its shape somewhat resembling the wing of a bird. Clavicembali formerly in use generally had a compass of five octaves. The instrument was usually supplied with some stops by means of which the quality of sound could in some measure be modified. Furthermore, it was frequently made with two keyboards, one for the loud and another for the soft tones. The harpsichord made in England was precisely of the same construction. In fact, the best harpsichord makers in England were emigrants from the continent, and the founders of some of the great pianoforte manufactories still flourishing in London. Burkhardt Tschudi, for instance, a harpsichord maker from Switzerland, was the founder of Broadwood’s celebrated manufactory, which dates from the year 1732. Kirkman, a German (who, before he established himself in England, wrote his name Kirchmann) sold his harpsichords in London, according to the German Musical Almanac for the year 1782, at the price of from 60l. to 90l. apiece. In the beginning of the eighteenth century many of the harpsichords made in England had, according to Grassineau (Musical Dictionary, London, 1740), a compass of only four octaves.
However, already as early as in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, harpsichords or clavicembali, of a superior quality, manufactured by Hans Ruckers and his sons Jean and Andreas, were imported into England. The instruments of these celebrated Antwerp manufacturers were tastefully embellished, and the best Dutch painters not infrequently enriched them with devices. The consequence has been that after the invention of the pianoforte, many of these old harpsichords were taken to pieces in order to preserve the valuable panels. The price of a fine harpsichord by Ruckers about 1770, was £120.
The old clavicembalo by Antonio Baffo, of Venice (Fig. 66), has slips of prepared leather instead of the usual crowquills, which, if original, would show that the statement of some writers as to Pascal Taskin in Paris being the first to use leather is erroneous. Taskin, in constructing in the year 1768 the Clavecin à peau de buffle, may have revived an old invention, which, however, he seems to have much improved. He made a clavecin with three keyboards, two of which were connected with actions constructed of crowquills, and the third with an action of leather. The modification in quality of sound thereby obtained was greatly admired.
The illustration (Fig. 67) represents a clavecin made by Pascal Taskin in the year 1786. The case is highly ornamented with Japanese figures and gilding.
The invention of the clavicembalo as well as of the clavicordo, is by some old writers ascribed to Guido Aretinus (or Guido d’Arezzo), the famous monk who is recorded to have invented, in the year 1025, the Solmisation, and also to have first conceived the idea of employing lines and dots in the notation of musical sounds. Unauthentic though the tradition may be which assigns to Guido the invention of the stringed instruments with a keyboard, it appears very probable that some rude kind of clavichord was first constructed about his time, or soon after.
The claviorganum, or organ-harpsichord, consists of an organ and a harpsichord (or a spinet) combined. Either can be played separately or with the other together. The separation and the union are effected by means of a stop or a pedal. The claviorganum was, some centuries ago, not uncommon. It enables the performer to sustain the sound at pleasure, which on the harpsichord is as little possible as on the pianoforte. A claviorganum from Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, illustrated in Fig. 68, affords evidence of a higher antiquity of instruments of this kind than might perhaps be expected. It bears the inscription, Lodowicus Theewes me fecit, 1579. There is scarcely more remaining of this interesting relic than the outer case; but this is so elaborately finished that, if the mechanism was constructed with equal care and success, it must have been a superior instrument. The maker is unknown in musical history. Perhaps he belonged to the family of Treu (also written Trew), musicians of repute in Anspach about the year 1600.
Fig. 67.—Clavecin. Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French. Dated 1786. H. 32¾ in., W. of keyboard, 30 in., L. 72 in. No. 1121-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 68.—Organ-Harpsichord or Claviorganum. Formerly in the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent. Probably English.
Harpsichord, H. 9 in., L. 84 in., W. 35½ in. Organ case, H. 41 in., L. 91 in., W. 40 in. No. 125 125ᵃ-’90.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 70.—Flauto Dolce, or Flute. Ivory. Inscribed “Anciuti
a Milan, 1740."
L. 18½ in. No. 7469-’61.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The pianoforte, which now has entirely superseded the harpsichord, was first constructed at the beginning of the eighteenth century, in Italy and Germany. About the year 1767 it was from Germany introduced into England; but the English musicians for a considerable period objected to it, and preferred to retain the harpsichord.
That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a species of flageolet, called recorder, is undoubtedly known to most readers from the stage direction in Hamlet: Re-enter players with recorders. The recorder is also mentioned by Milton, and described by Bacon, who states that “the figures of recorders, flutes and pipes are straight; but the recorder hath a less bore, and a greater above and below.” An illustration of this old instrument, which has now become very scarce, is given in “The Genteel Companion; Being exact Directions for the Recorder: etc.” London, 1683.
The flauto dolce (French, flûte douce, and flûte à bec), much in use some centuries ago, was made of various lengths (Fig. 70). The Germans called it Pflockflöte, i.e., a flute with a plug in the mouth-hole. The most common flûte à bec was made with six finger-holes, and its compass embraced somewhat more than two octaves. Several of the finger-holes required to be only partly covered in order to produce the desired tone. There was often a key on this instrument in addition to the finger-holes. This flute was much in favour in England; hence it was called in France “Flûte d’Angleterre.” It has gradually been supplanted by the “Flûte traversière,” or “German Flute."
The flageolet (Fig. 71), the smallest flûte à bec, was formerly played in England even by ladies. Pepys, in his Diary (March 1st, 1666), records:—"Being returned home, I find Greeting, the flageolet-master, come, and teaching my wife; and I do think my wife will take pleasure in it, and it will be easy for her, and pleasant."
The flageolet was made of various sizes. Pepys (Diary, January 20th, 1667) records:—"To Drumbleby’s, the pipemaker, there to advise about the making of a flageolet to go low and soft; and he do show me a way which do, and also a fashion of having two pipes of the same note fastened together, so as I can play on one and then echo it upon the other, which is mighty pretty."
The double flageolet was invented by Bainbridge about the year 1800. The triple flageolet (Fig. 69) is less common but equally useless for musical performances of the present day. The “Harmonicon,” London, 1830, records:—"Within these few years Mr. Bainbridge has added a bass joint to his double flageolet and the tone resembles the lower notes on a German flute. The effect produced by the combination of three notes is very good and mellifluous. The bass joint is fixed at the back of the double flageolet, and the breath is conveyed by means of a tube; and by the introduction of what are termed stop-keys, a solo, duet, or trio may be instantaneously performed. The bass notes are produced by keys pressed with the thumb of the left hand.” The writer remarks that “this instrument being purely English, I consider it deserving of being recorded as a very ingenious invention."
The hautboy or oboe (Fig. 72) came into more general use about the year 1720.
Fig. 71.—Flageolet.
Italian. Middle of 18th century.
L. 20 in., Diam. of mouth, 1⅞ in.
No. 1124-’69.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 72.—Oboe. Made by Anciuti
of Milan; formerly in the possession
of the composer Rossini. Latter
half of 18th century. L. 21½ in.,
Diam. of mouth, 2½ in. No. 1127-69
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The most noteworthy kinds of the hautboy of the time of Handel and Sebastian Bach are,—the oboe da caccia, which is identical with the corno inglese (English horn, cor anglais), a large hautboy still occasionally employed in the orchestra, and the oboe d’amore, or oboe lungo, whch has fallen into oblivion. The pitch of the oboe d’amore was a minor third lower than that of the common hautboy, or oboe piccolo; and its sound, owing to the narrowness of the bore at its further end, was rather weak, but particularly sweet.
The precursor of the hautboy was evidently the bombardino, or chalumeau. The bombardino, also called in Italian bombardo piccolo, was a small bombardo, an instrument of the hautboy kind, about three centuries ago much in use on the Continent.
The Germans called the bombardo “Pommer,” which appears to be a corruption of the Italian name. The bombardo was made of various sizes, and with a greater or smaller number of finger-holes and keys. That which produced the bass tones was sometimes of an enormous length, and was blown through a bent tube, like the bassoon, the invention of which it is said to have suggested.
The smallest instrument, called chalumeau (from calamus, “a reed") is still occasionally to be found among the peasantry in the Tyrol and some other parts of the Continent. The Germans call it Schalmei, and the Italians piffero pastorale. In England it was formerly called shawm or shalm.
The clarinet, likewise an instrument of this class, is said to have been invented by Denner, in Nürnberg, about the year 1700. The clarinet has only a single vibrating reed in the mouth-piece; the hautboy has a double one.
The invention of the bassoon (Italian, fagotto; French basson; German, Fagott) is ascribed to Afranio, a canon of Ferrara, who constructed the first in the year 1539. The instrument was, however, an improved bombardo rather than a new invention. As early as the year 1550, the celebrated wind-instrument maker Schnitzer, in Nürnberg, manufactured bassoons which were considered as very complete. Fig. 73 illustrates a species of bassoon bound with brass with brass keys, and complete with mouth-piece and reed.
Various bassoons of small dimensions in use about two centuries ago, and earlier (the dolciano, Quartfagott, Quintfagott, tenor-bassoon, corthol, etc.), are now antiquated.
Fig. 73.—Bassoon, species of. English. Late 18th or early 19th century.
L. 48¼ in. No. 637-’72.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
In the list of musical instruments of Sir Thomas Kytson, of Hengrave Hall, about the year 1600, recorded in the “History and Antiquities of Hengrave, Suffolk,” by John Gage, London, 1822, is mentioned “A Curtall,” which was probably the corthol or French courtaut, an early kind of bassoon, a specimen of which, dating from the fifteenth century, is preserved in the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris. According to Prætorius (anno 1619) the fagotto piccolo, a small species of bassoon, was called in England single corthol.
The invention of the serpent (Fig. 74) is attributed to Edme Guillaume, a canon of Auxerre in France, anno 1590. It was, however, no new invention, properly speaking, but merely an improvement upon the old Basszinken, the management of which was rendered more convenient by giving a serpentine winding to the tube. This instrument subsequently became rather popular. It was used in military bands and in processions until about the middle of the last century. The French made use of it also in church to support the voices. Towards the end of the eighteenth century it appears to have still been a common substitute for the organ in France. Dr. Burney, in his “Journal,” London, 1773, states that he frequently met with it in the churches of that country, and he expresses a more favourable opinion of its suitableness for promoting edification than might have been expected from a refined musician:—"It gives the tone in chanting, and plays the bass when they sing in parts. It is often ill-played, but if judiciously used would have a good effect. It is, however, in general overblown, and too powerful for the voices it accompanies; otherwise, it mixes with them better than the organ, as it can augment or diminish a sound with more delicacy, and is less likely to overpower or destroy, by a bad temperament, that perfect one of which the voice only is capable."
Fig. 74.—The Serpent. Made by Gerock Wolf, in London. English. Early 19th century. L. 28 in.
No. 286-’82.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 75.—Serinette or Bird Organ. French. Period of Louis XIV. H. 8⅛, L. 11⅛ in., W. 9 in.
No. 629-’68.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Fig. 76.—Organ (Positive). Bears the arms of John George I., Elector of Saxony (b. 1585, d. 1656). German.
Dated 1627.
H. 45½ in., W. 27½ in. No. 2-’67.
Victoria and Albert Museum.
The serinette, or bird organ (Fig. 75), was formerly used in France by ladies to teach airs to little singing birds, especially to a kind of siskin or canary, called in French serin; hence the name of the instrument.
The organ positive (Fig. 76) is distinguished from the organ portative in so far that the former was a larger instrument, generally placed on a table and blown by an attendant, while the latter was carried about by the performer in religious processions and on such-like occasions.
In England some rude species of organ is said to have been used in public worship as early as about the middle of the seventh century. It was, however, on the Continent, principally in Germany, that almost all the important improvements originated which gradually brought the organ to its present high degree of perfection. Many old organs of fine workmanship are still extant in the churches of Germany. During the 18th century especially several large organs of deserved celebrity were built in that country; suffice it to instance those of the brothers Andreas and Gottfried Silbermann. In England the important inventions of the continental builders were not readily adopted. Recently, however, several huge organs of very fine workmanship have been constructed in England, chiefly for use in concert rooms, or public halls.
The regal, often mentioned in English literature of the time of Shakespeare, and earlier (see also p. 96), was a small organ portative. There was till about the end of the 18th century a “Tuner of the Regals,” in the Chapel Royal St. James’s, with a salary of 56l. The name regal is supposed to have been derived from rigabello, a musical instrument of which scarcely more is known than that it was played in the churches of Italy before the introduction of the organ.
The expression “a payre of regalls,” used by writers some centuries ago, evidently implies only a single instrument. Thus also the virginal is not unfrequently mentioned as “a payre of virginalls.” Moreover, it appears that the regal was occasionally made with two sets of pipes, so as to constitute a double organ of its kind.
In the following lines from Sir W. Leighton’s “Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soule,” London, 1613, this little organ is mentioned in combination with other curious instruments now antiquated, most of which will be found in the present collection:—
The bagpipe (Fig. 77) appears to have been from time immemorial a special favourite instrument with the Celtic races; but it was perhaps quite as much admired by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, it used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, appeared fully retained exhibiting even the head with the horns; hence the bagpipe was called kosà, which signifies a goat.
The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to in Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A pig gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300.
The bell has always been so much in popular favour in England that some account of it must not be omitted. Paul Hentzner, a German, who visited England in the year 1598, records in his journal: “The people are vastly fond of great noises that fill the ear, such as firing of cannon, drums, and the ringing of bells; so that in London it is common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to go up into some belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake of exercise.” This may be exaggeration,—not unusual with travellers. It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a favourite amusement with Englishmen for centuries.
The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened, so as to permit of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner without damaging by their vibration the building in which they are placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The Italian campanile, or bell tower, is not unfrequently separated from the church itself. In Servia the church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timber built near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of Greece the belfry is usually separate from the church. The reason assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is that in case of an earthquake the bells are likely to fall and, were they placed in a tower, would destroy the roof of the church and might cause the destruction of the whole building. Also in Russia a special edifice for the bells is generally separate from the church. In the Russian villages the bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an oak-tree near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the lych-gate leading to the graveyard.
The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument such as the carillon is said by some to have suggested itself first to the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic countries sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans employed variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among the Etruscan antiquities an instrument has been discovered which is constructed of a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous bells, varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European countries the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame, which we find in mediæval illuminations, deserve notice. In the British Museum is a manuscript of the fourteenth century in which King David is depicted holding in each hand a hammer with which he strikes upon bells of different dimensions, suspended on a wooden stand.
It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means of bells merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In Lancashire each of the ringers manages two bells, holding one in either hand. Thus, an assemblage of seven ringers insures fourteen different tones; and as each ringer may change his two notes by substituting two other Dells if required, even compositions with various modulations, and of a somewhat intricate character, may be executed,—provided the ringers are good timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in with his note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes his single note whenever it occurs.
Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be regarded as pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting a peal are frequently of the number of eight, attuned to the diatonic scale. Also peals of ten bells, and even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A peculiar feature of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided with clappers, are generally swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth completely upwards. The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at Exeter Cathedral: another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s, Leicester, which consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early date in England; Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast about the year 960 a set of six bells.
The carillon is especially popular in the Netherlands and Belgium, but is also found in Germany, Italy, and some other European countries. It is generally placed in the church tower, and also sometimes in other public edifices. The statement repeated by several writers that the first carillon was invented in the year 1481 in the town of Alost is not to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to have possessed similar chimes in the year 1300. There are two kinds of carillons in use on the Continent, viz.: clock chimes, which are moved by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ; and such as are provided with a set of keys, by means of which the tunes are played by a musician. The carillon in the “Parochial-Kirche” at Berlin, which is one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells; and is provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of rather more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods somewhat above a foot in length, and are pressed down with the palms of the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the instrument requires not only great dexterity, but also a considerable physical power. It is astonishing how rapidly passages can be executed upon it by the player, who is generally the organist of the church in which he acts as carillonneur. When engaged in the last-named capacity he usually wears leathern gloves to protect his fingers, as they are otherwise apt to become ill fit for the more delicate treatment of the organ.
The want of a contrivance in the carillon for stopping the vibration has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near, sound as a confused noise; only at some distance are they tolerable. It must be remembered that the carillon is intended especially to be heard from a distance. Successions of tones which form a consonant chord, and which have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this instrument.
Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics which render it especially suitable for the production of some particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of music has, therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new effects in compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and which has now obtained so great a popularity; its characteristics inspired our great composers to the invention of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly rendered on any other instrument, however superior in some respects it may be to the pianoforte. Thus also the improvements which have been made during the present century in the construction of our brass instruments, and the invention of several new brass instruments, have evidently been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in our modern orchestral works.
Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced the reader that a reference to the history of the music of different nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own musical instruments, which to the unprepared observer must appear misty and impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as with any other scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only faint nebulæ, where with the aid of the telescope bright stars are revealed.