Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I / (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the / Austrian Navy.

All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, but the Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite unintelligible to them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu, and Malabar. The greater number had their foreheads painted according to the caste they belonged to. Those worshipping Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. The adherents of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no distinguishing mark upon the forehead, except that those that are married wear a five-ply cord (panul), tied obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not, however, attach too much faith to these varieties of external markings, since many tattoo their foreheads with red, or yellow, or ashen-gray punctures, which usually have no special signification, but simply imply that on account of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence, they have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing insignia of their caste properly designed. According to the natives, the yellow colour is procured from the crushed, yellow-tinted root of the Curcuma longa, (a species of spice), the red from the Cardomum (Amomum repens), citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from common chalk.

Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most admirable arrangements for our accommodation while at the Seven Pagodas. When, after our first survey of the locality, we came down to the beach, we found two large and two small tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected round a fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our astonishment, on entering the first tent, to find it spread with carpets, with an elegant sleeping-apartment with two large commodious bedsteads, and fitted up with all the usual necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage which ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two immense baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate our exhausted frames! Ere we had recovered from our surprise, we were advised of the voice of the Government Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and reception room, and was also furnished with every conceivable appliance to promote our comfort. His lordship was even so attentive as to send his own travelling canteen for our use on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, with a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with blue, by means of which the glare of the sun and of the blinding white sand was rendered less painful and more tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were employed in sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained sand, which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. The Government Peon, as also the chief of police of the district, wore their best uniforms of white, with bran new bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red scarves, with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, with the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number of men and children ran hither and thither,—in a word, the whole village seemed in an uproar to see the strange gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 p. m., the thermometer suspended within the tent marked 84° Fahr., although a gentle breeze was blowing from seaward through the fragrant luxuriant grass (Kus-kus, or Vetiveyr), which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant Kus-kus, (Andropogon muricatum) in the manufacture of mats, which are intended to be suspended in the entrance-halls of houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon the penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine damp texture, which thus at once tempers the heat, and fills the air with perfume.

Towards 5 p. m., the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled to the Five Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our encampment. The prevalent tree in this locality is the Palmyra palm, which, though it does not boast the majestic proportions of the Oreodoxia Regia, or the cocoa-nut palm, presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. Generally speaking, however, the district is quite bare and destitute of trees; and, in short, like all the rest of this coast, has very much the appearance of the flat coasts of Africa.

Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the brothers of Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and Sawadewen, the fifth being excavated in honour of Dubrotis, the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend relates that the four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality of husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species of Amazon. All these temples are tolerably sculptured, which, indeed, constitutes their chief claim to attention; but they are far from showing the artistic finish of the bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy Mount.

Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not the most important of these artificial grottoes. The sculptures here are incontestably the most highly-finished. The upper portion, to which access is obtained by some steps cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite block, known as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of one piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed allegories.

Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, Siva's wife, riding on a lion (according to the natives, on a tiger), and bending her bow in conflict with Mahishasura, a giant with the head of a buffalo, who brandishes a club. According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and heroine, Donga, the representative of active virtue, and the bull-headed Mahishasura, the personification of brute strength and animal passion. Over the head of either figure, a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread, giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.

The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù (Rhanganatha), 9½ feet high, apparently representing the idea of the Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five heads, encircles his head. At his feet one perceives two rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in a praying attitude, with uplifted hands, only the bust being represented. In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, life-size, of Siva, and his wife Paravathi, the latter holding an infant at the breast, his offspring Supramanión. Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, on the left Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their power and dominion.

The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of platform of loose stones accurately fitted to each other without mortar, so as to make an ornamental whole. The interior is adorned with much more highly-finished specimens of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing penance, annually climb, with great difficulty, into this part of the building, and make their way into the unfinished interior apartments. While we were giving free scope to our surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed in our contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of flowers, wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players (Pulanpolen) who were passing, made their appearance to give us a specimen of their musical skill. One old man, of whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly carved in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there was in the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a manuscript, known as the Istálam-purànam which gave the history of the Seven Pagodas, written in Tamil.

The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter Elliot, who formed an extensive collection of the various valuable Hindoo manuscripts and inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a translation of them,[109] told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give one single reliable particular as to the history of the Seven Pagodas.

In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and surrounded by a modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on the exterior of the Temple, an inscription in Tamil, which is, however, utterly unintelligible to the natives. This inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and gives the most complete detail, together with signature of the donor. The name Mahamalaipur,[110] the "City of the Sacred Hill," occurs frequently in it.

In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo followers, we remarked that they made no difference between a "kovül" or praying-house, in which the divinities are never produced, but are guarded under lock and key, and a pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they can be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it is that a pagoda is more readily accessible than a kovül, the sanctity of which it is forbidden him to violate.

In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the Brahmins, was permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break away the partition which divided the inscriptions into two portions, in order to prepare three copies, and have them translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these translators was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The inscription contains the history of two donations, on the enlargement and laying the foundation-stone of the temple, accomplished by the "Kanattan" of the village, and, lastly, a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin Paramesvara-Mahavara, on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept constantly burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. It results from this interpretation that the inscription was put up towards the end of the 11th century, thus supplying some clue to the age of this rock temple, which, according to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed a thousand years.

To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole history, the natives wander regularly every morning, and sometimes two or three times during the day, to offer flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight of steps cut in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is an excellent view over these monumental edifices.

That fancy has been called in to invest these unique unfinished sculptures with the character of pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the guide does not fail to point out to the stranger a sort of stone cistern hewn out of the solid rock, traditionally reported to have been once the plunge-bath of Dubrotis. This colossal basin has about 2½ feet water during the rainy season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. The water, tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves a mark behind on the stone sides, which naturally becomes very visible during the dry season. This the natives maintain marks the height of the water as often as Dubrotis, (Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another similar block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, and is called Dharma Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, near the head, a tiger is crouched to guard it. This gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as though balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor made to oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock piled up above the grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so forth. All these spots, however, have in reality not the slightest historic significance; it is only the present generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions, and interpretations, which assuredly never were in the intention of the constructors.

On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of sculptures of remarkable beauty, representing the history of Tapasa, or the deep penitence of Ardschuna. On the right hand, close to the figure of the penitent Ardschuna, one perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as large as life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half woman half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have seen, is a huge sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in height, comprising hundreds of figures, with an idol in the centre, to which from all sides worshipping deities, men, and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory attitudes; along the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, tends still more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder doubt whether he is looking upon sculptures or upon living elephants. Elliot and others who have described these rock temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a comparatively small antiquity. They are representations borrowed from the poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo mythology. The five roundish temples to the south of the village are beyond all question the oldest of these monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; solid, and here and there showing marks of work, but only adorned externally, the interiors being masses of unhewn granite; each of these temples is 30 feet in length by 20 in breadth and height. Thus far, the inscriptions have been ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are as yet undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to decipher them, or at all events to find the key by which to decipher them. The most important has been copied and interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the various representations give the slightest historical clue as to the object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to establish the fact, that in the 17th century this district was inhabited by the Corumbas, a half-civilized race of the Dschaina religion. About this period, or a little later, in the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced to this neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, their nature, and the immense expense incurred, all point to a long-continued influence of the Brahmins. Most of these temples seem to have been first erected in the 17th century, under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several even a much later date.

As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old pyramidal pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the sea, peering up from amid the furious foaming surf, it seems to be altogether a myth, so that such enquirers as Ellis, Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble of searching for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of seeking to recover the ruins of the submerged city. Several writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea on the Cormandel coast is retiring; but this appears to be a mistake, for here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is the case at Fort St. George, which 80 years ago was at some distance from the sea-shore, whereas its walls are at present washed by the tremendous surf.

But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden and extensive as to have swallowed up an entire city, without leaving any traces. Not one of the natives to whom we spoke in the place could say for certain, that the sea had materially gained upon the land within the memory of man. Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a city. One can safely assert that there never existed such a city at Mahamalaipuram, but that it has always been a mere abode of priests, with temples, sanctuaries, &c., without any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan, Quirigua, or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of the artist. The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at Mahamalaipuram is too low, to admit of our supposing that since their erection the greater part had been swallowed up in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they are all susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo mythology, with the aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, all referring to Vishnù and his world of deities.

While some of the Novara expedition were visiting Mahamalaipuram, others made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, near the shore, northwards from Madras. About 40 or 50 miles on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or Blue Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the gray horizon to the N.W., the height of which may be about 1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow bulwark or quay of unequal breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles, separates this salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. The lake varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about 60 to 70 miles long. The level of its bed is so remarkably regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5 feet, that when the wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be pushed along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked inhabitants of the coast standing in the very middle of the water, with their landing or drag-nets, or busily occupied with rod and line! Being but a few hours distant from Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, carefully faced with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining land into lagoons, in which during the rainy seasons the strongly brackish water enters, and is used to make sea-salt.

In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by fishing-boats, as by those laden with wood and fruit, which they convey to the city for disposal. Most especially remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds, which frequent its shores and all around it. At several places where the shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere swamps with barely a foot of water, they are literally covered with myriads of curlews, which fly about in flights of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the earth, seeking their food in the mud; far as the eye can reach, one saw whole ranks of these birds blending with storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in the water itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in the air. As evening came on, the naturalists of the Novara were sailing as though in a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, as they sprang out of the water, left a fiery wake behind them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured ever-widening circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again. Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round the boat, united with the singular melancholy cry of the jackal, which resounded from the shore, while overhead flights of birds flew restlessly about in the air, whirring in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.

From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the artificial canals, which unite this basin of water at various points and in different directions with the surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a sort of underwood or brush, which grows again within the extraordinary short space of ten to twelve years. Sisyphus vulgaris (Rhamnea), Gardenia Ficus, tamarinds, and several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of climbers. The wood is cut by the natives, who have constructed huts in the jungle, into pieces of about 2 feet in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the shore, whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.

When the members of the Novara Expedition had returned, greatly pleased, from their various excursions, the Madras Club gave a grand banquet in honour of the captain and staff, to which the élite of Madras society were invited. Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific members of the Expedition upon the free list of the club during the ship's stay. The Madras Club-house, though not so luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of London, fairly surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in fact, a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds assembled all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable mode of existence; parlours, with wide arm-chairs and American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms, in which are all the best journals and an excellent assortment of the best and newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine in either the English or French style; billiard-rooms, shower and plunge-baths, and a large swimming-bath. Members from the country, or strangers, can be accommodated with lodging as well.

At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at which above 200 persons sat down, the chair was taken by the Chief Justice Sir Christopher Rawlinson—next to the Governor, the most influential person in the community. The extremely friendly disposition manifested on that occasion found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, but appropriate words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, on the other side, they gave unmistakable evidence of the admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by the Novara carried away with them from the hospitable shores of Madras.[111]

As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, notwithstanding the difficulties of getting out to, and back from the roads, to visit our ship, the commodore invited some forty guests, shortly before our departure, to a "tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the company of some twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After "tiffin," which was served on the poop, under a tent improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, our band of music being called into requisition for quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes; and, indeed, our guests paid so little attention to the approach of night, that their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our pleasant guests homewards with Bengal lights.

At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set sail. As the frigate was perceived, from Fort George to weigh anchor, a thundering salute was fired of 21 guns—an extraordinary honour and mark of attention, to which we responded by a similar salute. In consequence of calms and light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and it was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our voyage. For several evenings after, that magnificent, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon, the Zodiacal light, which is conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age, to be the beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving in the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was visible with much regularity. What was afterwards observed, however, of this remarkable zone of light, during the course of our voyage, will be found detailed in the meteorological portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar Islands, our next station. But although, as was rendered necessary by the climate so near the Equator, we were clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was nothing to remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our sailors did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without celebrating that day, to be marked with a white stone, by masking and dancing according to ancient custom. Jack has an especially good memory for the return of such junketings, and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near the line also, not because he had any pleasure therein, but because it has always been his custom to do so at carnival-time!

The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, there being but eight on the sick list, of whom only two were seriously ill.

On the 22nd February towards 10 a. m. the Island of Kar-Nicobar hove in sight, and towards afternoon we found ourselves but a few miles distant. The land seemed for the most part level, only a low eminence thickly covered with frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown with cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three Malay boats at anchor. On the beach were some huts of beehive-like shape, in and out of which naked brown figures were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous lights glimmered from the shore.

The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we anchored off the N.W. side of the island, in 14½ fathoms coral sand, about 2 miles distant from the shore, and just between the two villages of Mosse and Sàui, each consisting of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4 cable-lengths of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies covered in the most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European clothes, approached the frigate while she was being secured, in small but elegant canoes, and called out anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive tone and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we interpreted into an inquiry as to whether they had anything to fear, and whether we were disposed to be friendly. When, however, we did not immediately throw them a rope to make fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our numerous guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.

APPENDIX A.

APPENDIX B.

APPENDIX C.