New Latin Grammar

CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

242. 1. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily:—

videō, I see; amat, he loves.

But ego tē videō, et tū mē vidēs, I see you, and you see me.

2. The Genitives meī, tuī, nostrī, vestrī are used only as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus:—

memor tuī, mindful of you;

dēsīderium vestrī, longing for you;

nēmō vestrum, no one of you.

a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.

3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'

4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus:—

virtūs amīcitiās conciliat et cōnservat, virtue establishes friendships and maintains them (not eās cōnservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

243. 1. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus:—

patrem amō, I love my father;

dē fīliī morte flēbās, you wept for the death of your son.

But—

dē morte fīliī meī flēbās, you wept for the death of my son.

a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or contrast, it precedes; as,—

suā manū līberōs occīdit, with his own hand he slew his children;

meā quidem sententiā, in my opinion at least.

2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive; as,—

metus vester, fear of you;

dēsīderium tuum, longing for you.

3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsīus or ipsōrum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,—

meā ipsīus operā, by my own help;

nostrā ipsōrum operā, by our own help.

a. So sometimes other Genitives; as,—

meā ūnīus operā, by the assistance of me alone.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

244. 1. The Reflexive Pronoun sē and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a double use:—

I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand,—'Direct Reflexives'; as,—

sē amant, they love themselves;

suōs amīcōs adjuvāt, he helps his own friends;

eum ōrāvī, ut sē servāret, I besought him to save himself.

II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause,—'Indirect Reflexives'; as,—

mē ōrāvit ut sē dēfenderem, he besought me to defend him (lit. that I defend himself);

mē ōrāvērunt, ut fortūnārum suārum dēfēnsiōnem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes.

a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.

2. The Genitive suī is regularly employed, like meī and tuī, as an Objective Genitive, e.g. oblītus suī, forgetful of himself; but it occasionally occurs—particularly in post-Augustan writers—in place of the Possessive suus; as, fruitur fāmā suī, he enjoys his own fame.

3. Sē and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one's self, one's own, where the reference is not to any particular person; as,—

sē amāre, to love one's self;

suum genium propitiāre, to propitiate one's own genius.

4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc., referring not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,—

Hannibalem suī cīvēs ē cīvitāte ējēcērunt, his own fellow-citizens drove out Hannibal.

a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque; as,—

suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.

5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and tū (§ 85); as,—

vōs dēfenditis, you defend yourselves.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

245. 1. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun ('each other'), but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases: inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē; as,—

Belgae obsidēs inter sē dedērunt, the Belgae gave each other hostages (lit. among themselves);

amāmus inter nōs, we love each other;

Gallī inter sē cohortātī sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other.

a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Hīc, Ille, Iste.

246. 1. Where hīc and ille are used in contrast, hīc usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.

2. Hīc and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'; as,—

Themistoclēs hīs verbīs epistulam mīsit, Themistocles sent a letter (couched) in the following words;

illud intellegō, omnium ōra in mē conversa esse, I understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward me.

3. Ille often means the famous; as, Solōn ille, the famous Solon.

4. Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homō, that fellow!

5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun; as, hīc est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty.

Is.

247. 1. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative quī. Thus:—

Maximum, eum quī Tarentum recēpit, dīlēxī, I loved Maximus, the man who retook Tarentum.

a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such (= tālis); as,—

nōn sum is quī terrear, I am not such a person as to be frightened.

b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire clause; as,—

nōn suspicābātur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multōs testēs nōbīs reliquōs esse, he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses enough left.

Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use.

2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'they,' 'them.'

3. When the English uses 'that of,' 'those of,' to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun: as,—

in exercitū Sullae et posteā in Crassī fuerat, he had been in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus;

nūllae mē fābulae dēlectant nisi Plautī, no plays delight me except those of Plautus.

4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense: and that too; as,—

vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too permanently.

Īdem.

248. 1. Īdem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also, likewise; as,—

quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which, the same thing);

bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellāmus, a good man, whom we call also wise.

For īdem atque (ac), the same as, see § 341, 1. c.

Ipse.

249. 1. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the context; as,—

eō ipsō diē, on that very day;

ad ipsam rīpam, close to the bank;

ipsō terrōre, by mere fright;

valvae sē ipsae aperuērunt, the doors opened of their own accord;

ipse aderat, he was present in person.

2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject; as,—

sēcum ipsī loquuntur, they talk with themselves;

sē ipse continēre nōn potest, he cannot contain himself

3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity; as,—

Persae pertimuērunt nē Alcibiadēs ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et cum suīs in grātiam redīret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen;

ea molestissimē ferre dēbent hominēs quae ipsōrum culpā contrācta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of others).

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

250. Agreement. 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands; as,—

mulier quam vidēbāmus, the woman whom we saw;

bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.

2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see § 235, B, 2). Thus:—

pater et fīlius, qui captī sunt, the father and son who were captured;

stultitia et timiditās quae fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice which must be shunned;

honōrēs et victōriae quae sunt fortuīta, honors and victories, which are accidental.

3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,—

carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prison, which is called Lautumiae;

Belgae, quae est tertia pars, the Belgians, who are the third part.

4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent; as,—

pars quī bēstiīs objectī sunt, a part (of the men) who were thrown to beasts.

5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent; as,—

nātus eō patre quō dīxī, born of the father that I said.

251. Antecedent. 1. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted; as,—

quī nātūram sequitur sapiēns est, he who follows Nature is wise.

2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective); as,—

nostra quī remānsimus caedēs, the slaughter of us who remained;

servīlī tumultū, quōs ūsus ac disciplīna sublevārunt, at the uprising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted (servīlī = servōrum).

3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,—

erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which (routes).

4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus:—

a) When the relative clause stands first; as,—

quam quisque nōvit artem, in hāc sē exerceat, let each one practice the branch which he knows.

b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,—

nōn longē ā Tolōsātium fīnibus absunt, quae cīvitās est in prōvinciā, they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is in our province.

c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,—

Themistoclēs dē servīs suīs, quem habuit fidēlissimum, mīsit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.

d) In expressions of the following type—

quā es prūdentiā; quae tua est prūdentia, such is your prudence (lit. of which prudence you are; which is your prudence).

5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus the boy I saw must be puer quem vīdī.

6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,—

quō factum est, by this it happened;

quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

quibus rēbus cognitīs, when these things became known.

7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,—

numquam dignē satis laudārī philosophia poterit, cui quī pāreat, omne tempus aetātis sine molestiā possit dēgere, philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass every period of life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys which, etc.).

Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia; but cui is governed by pāreat, which is subordinate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

252. 1. Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with sī, nisi, nē, num; as,—

sī quis putat, if any one thinks.

2. Aliquis (adj. aliquī) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usually to the English some one, somebody, some; as,—

nunc aliquis dīcat mihī, now let somebody tell me;

utinam modo agātur aliquid, oh that something may be done.

3. Quīdam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis; as,—

homō quīdam, a certain man (i.e., one whom I have in mind).

a. Quīdam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the sense: a sort of, kind of; as,—

cognātiō quaedam, a sort of relationship;

mors est quasi quaedam migrātiō, death is a kind of transfer as it were.

4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis), and its corresponding adjective ūllus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and in clauses of comparison; as,—

jūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam, justice never harms anybody;

sī quisquam, Catō sapiēns fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was;

potestne quisquam sine perturbātiōne animī īrāscī, can anybody be angry without excitement?

sī ūllō modō poterit, if it can be done in any way;

taetrior hīc tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiōrum, he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.

5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circumstances:—

a) In connection with suus. See § 244, 4, a.

b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,—

quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let him hold.

c) In connection with superlatives; as,—

optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one).

d) With ordinal numerals; as,—

quīntō quōque annō, every four years (lit. each fifth year).

6. Nēmō, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives used substantively; as,—

nēmō mortālis, no mortal;

nēmō Rōmānus, no Roman.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

253. 1. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correlatively; as,—

aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another;

aliī resistunt, aliī fugiunt, some resist, others flee;

alter exercitum perdidit, alter vēndidit, one ruined the army, the other sold it;

alterī sē in montem recēpērunt, alterī ad impedīmenta sē contulērunt, the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves to the baggage.

2. Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement; as,—

alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another;

aliud aliīs placet, one thing pleases some, another others.

a. So sometimes with adverbs; as,—

aliī aliō fugiunt, some flee in one direction, others in another.

3. The Latin also expresses the notion 'each other' by means of alius repeated; as,—

Gallī alius alium cohortātī sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.

4. Cēterī means the rest, all the others; as,—

cēterīs praestāre, to be superior to all the others.

5. Reliquī means the others in the sense of the rest, those remaining,—hence is the regular word with numerals; as,—

reliquī sex, the six others.

6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some one or other; as,—

causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other;

mīsit nescio quem, he sent some one or other;

nescio quō pactō, somehow or other.

CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.

AGREEMENT.

With One Subject.

254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as,—

vōs vidētis, you see;

pater fīliōs īnstituit, the father trains his sons.

2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,—

sēditiō repressa est, the mutiny was checked.

3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,—

Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side;

nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, not every error is to be called folly.

a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,—

Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the Volsci, was captured.

4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:—

a) In Number; as,—

multitūdō hominum convēnerant, a crowd of men had gathered.

b) In Gender; as,—

duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, two thousand (men) were crucified.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as,—

pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, the father and son died.

2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,—

a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,—

mortuus est pater et fīlius;

pater mortuus est et fīlius.

b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel; neque ... neque; as,—

neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, neither father nor son died.

3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as,—

temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, rashness and ignorance are bad.

a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.

4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; as,—

sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.

5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,—

ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, I shall not allow him to defend himself.

2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something in his own interest; as,—

vēlātus tempora, having veiled his temples.

a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,—

tunicā indūcitur artūs, he covers his limbs with a tunic.

3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,—

curritur, people run (lit. it is run);

ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:—

a) The period of time to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or Future.

b) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.

The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table:—

2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).

The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.

The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities:—

1. It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,—

virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does so).

2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,—

dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, while they try to avoid (vītant) vices, they rush into opposite ones.

3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as,—

Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar demanded a large number of hostages (lit. demands).

4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as,—

jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time; as,—

librum legēbam, I was reading a book.

a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of description (as opposed to mere narration).

2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action; as,—

lēgātōs interrogābat, he kept asking the envoys;

C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius.

3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,—

hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant, the enemy tried to prevent (prohibēbant) our men from advancing within the fortifications ('Conative');

ad proelium sē expediēbant, they were beginning to get ready for battle ('Inceptive').

4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as,—

domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, he had had his residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).

Future Indicative.

261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: 'If he comes, I shall be glad,' where we really mean: 'If he shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.

2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, say!

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,—

nōvī, cognōvī, I know (lit. I have become acquainted with);

cōnsuēvī, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed).

B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description); as,—

Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī captivōs negāvit esse ūtile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned.

1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as,—

Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.

a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,—

nōveram, I knew.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus:—

scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned).

a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.

b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as,—

nōverō, I shall know.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,—

nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī quidquam audieram et ad tuās omnēs epistulās jam rescrīpseram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:—

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,—

videō quid faciās, I see what you are doing.

vidēbō quid faciās, I shall see what you are doing.

vīderō quid faciās, I shall have seen what you are doing.

videō quid fēcerīs, I see what you have done.

vidēbō quid fēcerīs, I shall see what you have done.

vīderō quid fēcerīs, I shall have seen what you have done.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,—

vidēbam quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.

vīdī quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.

vīderam quid facerēs, I had seen what you were doing.

vidēbam quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.

vīdī quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.

vīderam quid fēcissēs, I had seen what you had done.

3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,—

dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, I have shown why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.).

2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,—

videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative, ostendī, I showed).

3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus:—

Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted;

Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms.

4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,—

honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā tamen pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.

5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,—

sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem tū quidem eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live.

6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:—

rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jūdicārit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jūdicārit in the above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:

a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as,—

Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement: nōn potest restitui);

ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō flagrantius studium vīderim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī, I have seen in no one).

NOTE.—This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.

b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used historically; as,—

nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs, I do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.

Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:—

1.

a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses.

b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus:—

Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order;

Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order;

Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered;

Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāvisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.

2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:—

timeō nē veniat, I am afraid he will come;

Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.

3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus sim and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as,—

nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, I do not doubt that my father will come;

nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, I did not doubt that my father would come.

4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,—

nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, I do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;

nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, I did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished.

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus:—

a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends; as,—

vidētur honōrēs adsequī, he seems to be gaining honors;

vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, he seemed to be gaining honors.

b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends; as,—

vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seems to have gained honors;

vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seemed to have gained honors.

c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends; as,—

vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seems to be about to gain honors;

vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seemed to be about to gain honors.

2. Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,—

dēbuit dīcere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say);

opōrtuit venīre, he ought to have come;

potuit vidēre, he might have seen.

a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,—

hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done.

3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,—

spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent);

spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be kept off.

a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,—

spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, I hope the enemy will be conquered.

4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,—

spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, I hope the letter will have been written;

dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained enough.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.

1. Note the following idiomatic uses:—

a) With possum; as,—

possum multa dīcere, I might say much;

poteram multa dīcere, I might have said much (§ 270, 2).

b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, ūtilius est, and some others; as,—

longum est ea dīcere, it would be tedious to tell that;

difficile est omnia persequī, it would be difficult to enumerate everything.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something—