1. As willed—Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired—Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible—Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:—
A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē. Thus:—
eāmus, let us go;
amēmus patriam, let us love our country;
nē dēspērēmus, let us not despair.
B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used—
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,—
dīcat, let him tell;
dīcant, let them tell;
quārē sēcēdant improbī, wherefore let the wicked depart!
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,—
istō bonō ūtāre, use that advantage;
modestē vīvās, live temperately.
C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with nē, to express a prohibition. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,—
nē repugnētis, do not resist!
tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, don't leave her!
impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, let not the impious dare to appease the gods!
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive, or by cavē or cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as,—
nōlī hōc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do)!
nōlīte mentīrī, do not lie!
cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, do not forgive, do not pity!
cavē nē haec faciās, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do)!
D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is nōn. Thus:—
quid faciam, what shall I do?
ego redeam, I go back!
huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! are we to bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!
quid facerem, what was I to do?
hunc ego nōn dīligam, should I not cherish this man?
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in character, and do not expect an answer.
E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus:—
sit hōc vērum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true);
nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, I grant there is not strength in old age;
fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, I grant that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly nē.
1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible.
dī istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!
falsus utinam vātēs sim, oh that I may be a false prophet!
nē veniant, may they not come!
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,—
utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, would that you were saying that in earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);
Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo;
utinam nē nātus essem, would that I had not been born.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is nōn. The following uses are to be noted:—
1. The 'May' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere possibility (English auxiliary may). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—
dīcat aliquis, some one may say;
dīxerit aliquis, some one may say.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—
fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial);
crēdiderim, I should believe.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms of statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus:—
velim mihi ignōscās, I wish you would forgive me;
nōlim putēs mē jocārī, I don't want you to think I'm joking.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as,—
diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.
3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.—In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force; § 356, 3) of a few verbs of perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as,—
videās, cernās, one can see, one can perceive;
crēderēs, one could believe;
vidērēs, cernerēs, one could see, perceive;
putārēs, one could imagine.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as,—
vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold enough).
The Imperative.
281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties (negative nē), as,—
ēgredere ex urbe, depart from the city;
mihi ignōsce, pardon me;
valē, farewell.
1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed—
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences; as,—
rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, I will lay the matter before you; do you (then) consider it;
sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,—
cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, the consuls shall have supreme power;
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, no one shall bury a dead body in the city;
amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus et condiciōnibus estō, let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions;
quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property);
ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, forgive your neighbor often, yourself never.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (why not?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,—
quīn abīs, go away! (lit. why don't you go away?);
quīn vōcem continētis, keep still! (lit. why don't you stop your voices?);
quīn equōs cōnscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses?)
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō (that, in order that), nē (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,—
edimus ut vīvāmus, we eat that we may live;
adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, help me, in order that this may be done more easily;
portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury.
a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,—
haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, they are doing this in order to frighten Chremes.
b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus:—
ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly.
c. Ut nōn (not nē) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:—
ut nōn ējectus ad aliēnōs, sed invītātus ad tuōs videāre, that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends.
d. To say 'and that not' or 'or that not,' the Latin regularly uses nēve (neu); as,—
ut eārum rērum vīs minuerētur, neu pontī nocērent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge;
profūgit, nē caperētur nēve interficerētur, he fled, that he might not be captured or killed.
e. But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by nē.
f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun: as,—
hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, on this account, that they might have peace.
2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,—
Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who should say);
haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem, I had these things to say about old age;
nōn habēbant quō sē reciperent, they had no place to which to flee (lit. whither they might flee).
a. Quī in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut ibi; unde to ut inde; quō to ut eō.
3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idōneus; as,—
idōneus fuit nēmō quem imitārēre, there was no one suitable for you to imitate (cf. nēmō fuit quem imitārēre, there was no one for you to imitate);
dignus est quī aliquandō imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.
4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,—
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, (I will say that) we departed.
Clauses of Characteristic.
283. 1. A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,—
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which sharpen the wits.
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,—
Catō, senex jūcundus, quī Sapiēns appellātus est, Cato, a delightful old man, who was called 'The Wise.'
The Clause of Characteristic implies 'a person of the sort that does something'; the Indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something.'
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est quī; sunt quī; nēmō est quī; nūllus est quī; ūnus est quī; sōlus est quī; quis est quī; is quī; etc. Thus:—
sunt quī dīcant, there are (some) who say;
nēmō est quī nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant;
sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow;
quae cīvitās est quae nōn ēvertī possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown?
nōn is sum quī improbōs laudem, I am not the sort of man that praises the wicked.
a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteristic is used after comparatives; as,—
nōn longius hostēs aberant quam quō tēlum adigī posset, the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them (lit. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (since) or opposition (although). Thus:—
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quīppe, utpote; as,—
ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs, O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor;
ut quī optimō jūre eam prōvinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right.
b) Opposition:—
egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen complūrēs diēs Athēnīs commorātus sum, I, although I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quīn = quī (quae, quod) nōn; as,—
nēmō est quīn saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often heard;
nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.
5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:
quod sciam, so far as I know; quem (quam, quod), audierim, so far as I have heard.
Clauses of Result.
284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative ut nōn (so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, tālis, tot, is (= tālis), tam, ita, sīc, adeō, or some similar word. Thus:—
quis tam dēmēns est ut suā voluntāte maereat, who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition?
Siciliam ita vāstāvit ut restituī in antīquum statum nōn possit, he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition;
mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them;
nōn is es ut tē pudor umquam ā turpitūdine āvocārit, you are not so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness.
2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quī (= ut is), quō (= ut eō), etc.; as,—
nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere, nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year;
habētis eum cōnsulem quī pārēre vestrīs dēcrētīs nōn dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quīn = ut nōn; as,—
nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit, nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching;
nēmō est tam fortis quīn reī novitāte perturbētur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence.
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as,—
urbs erat mūnītior quam ut prīmō impetū capī posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc.).
Causal Clauses.
285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:—
1. Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quandō.
286. The use of moods is as follows:—
1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker; they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus:—
Parthōs timeō quod diffīdō cōpiīs nostrīs, I fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops.
Themistoclēs, quia nōn tūtus erat, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, Themistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra.
neque mē vīxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vīxī, I do not regret having lived, since I have lived well.
Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet juventūtem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.)
Haeduī Caesarī grātiās ēgērunt quod sē perīculō līberāvisset, the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)
quoniam Miltiadēs dīcere nōn posset, verba prō eō fēcit Tīsagorās, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)
noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset, Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep.
a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:—
Bellovacī suum numerum nōn complēvērunt quod sē suō nōmine cum Rōmānīs bellum gestūrōs dīcerent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account.
b. Nōn quod, nōn quō (by attraction for nōn eō quod), nōn quia, not that, not because; and nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, nōn quīn, not that ... not; not because ... not; not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as,—
id fēcī, nōn quod vōs hanc dēfēnsiōnem dēsīderāre arbitrārer, sed ut omnēs intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all might perceive;
Crassō commendātiōnem nōn sum pollicitus, nōn quīn eam valitūram apud tē arbitrārer, sed egēre mihi commendātiōne nōn vidēbātur, I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation.
c. But clauses introduced by nōn quod, nōn quīa take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something; as,—
hōc ita sentiō, nōn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sīc exīstimāre nōs est necesse, this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,—
quae cum īta sint, since this is so;
cum sīs mortālis, quae mortālia sunt, cūrā, since you are mortal, care for what is mortal.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially since; as,—
Haeduōs accūsat, praesertim cum eōrum precibus adductus bellum suscēperit, he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties.
3. Quandō (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as,—
id omittō, quandō vōbīs ita placet, I pass over that, since you so wish.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc.
287. 1. Postquam (posteāquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum prīmum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,—
Epamīnōndās postquam audīvit vīcisse Boeōtiōs, 'Satis' inquit 'vīxī,' Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I have lived enough;'
id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, when he heard this, he moved to Corcyra;
Caesar cum prīmum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army;
ubi dē Caesaris adventū certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this construction.
2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as,—
ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur, whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry;
hostēs, ubi aliquōs ēgredientēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act ('Indefinite Frequency'); as,—
id ubi dīxisset hastam mittēbat, whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, trienniō postquam. Thus:—
quīnque post diēbus quam Lūcā discesserat, ad Sardiniam vēnit five days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia;
postquam occupātae Syrācūsae erant, profectus est Carthāginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued state; as,—
postquam Rōmam adventābant, senātus cōnsultus est, after they were on the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted;
postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position.
5. Rarely postquam, posteāquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,—
posteāquam sūmptuōsa fieri fūnera coepissent, lēge sublāta sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.
A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.
288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,—
A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs.
B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs.
Examples:—
INDICATIVE.
an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdēbat, or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?
crēdō tum cum Sicilia flōrēbat opibus et cōpiīs magna artificia fuisse in eā īnsulā, I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island;
eō tempore pāruit cum pārēre necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey;
illō diē, cum est lāta lēx dē mē, on that day when the law concerning me was passed.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Lysander cum vellet Lycūrgī lēgēs commūtāre, prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented;
Pythagorās cum in geōmetriā quiddam novī invēnisset, Mūsīs bovem immolāsse dīcitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eō diē, eō annō, eō tempore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegrē, nōndum; as,—
jam Gallī ex oppidō fugere apparābant, cum mātrēs familiae repente prōcurrērunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee);
Trēvirī Labiēnum adorīrī parābant, cum duās legiōnēs vēnisse cognōscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they learned that two legions had arrived.
3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2; 302, 3); as,—
cum ād aliquod oppidum vēnerat, eādem lectīcā ad cubiculum dēferēbātur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to his room;
cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,—
saepe cum aliquem vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum amiculum dedit, often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle;
cum prōcucurrissent, Numidae effugiēbant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as,—
tum tua rēs agitur, pariēs cum proximus ārdet, your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning;
cum vidēbis, tum sciēs, when you see, then you will know.
a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as,—
stabilitās amīcitiae cōnfirmārī potest, cum hominēs cupīdinibus imperābunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires.
C. OTHER USES OF Cum.
290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as,—
cum tacent clāmant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are silent, they shout).
2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean both ... and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive; as,—
cum tē semper dīlēxerim, tum tuīs factīs incēnsus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct.
Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.
A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.
291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.
1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,—
prius respondēs quam rogō, you answer before I ask;
nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, I will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,—
nōn prius jugulandī fīnis fuit, quam Sulla omnēs suōs dīvitiīs explēvit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth.
B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote—
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,—
priusquam dīmicārent, foedus īctum est, i.e. in anticipation of the fight, a treaty was struck.
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,—
tempestās minātur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises.
b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,—
priusquam tēlum adicī posset, omnis aciēs terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.
c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,—
animum omittunt priusquam locō dēmigrent, they die rather than quit their post.
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,—
sōl antequam sē abderet fugientem vīdit Antōnium, the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing.
Clauses introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad.
293. 1. Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,—
Alexander, dum inter prīmōrēs pugnat, sagittā ictus est, Alexander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow;
dum haec geruntur, in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli.
II. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as,—
dum anima est, spēs est, as long as there is life, there is hope;
Lacedaemoniōrum gēns fortis fuit, dum Lycūrgī lēgēs vigēbant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force;
Catō, quoad vīxit, virtūtum laude crēvit, Cato, at long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues.
III. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, until, take:—
1. The Indicative, to denote an actual event; as,—
dōnec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he came;
ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renūntiātum est Boeōtiōs vīcisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dōnec in this sense often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,—
trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant dōnec timor quiētem fēcisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet.
2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expectancy; as,—
exspectāvit Caesar dum nāvēs convenīrent, Caesar waited for the ships to assemble;
dum litterae veniant, morābor, I shall wait for the letter to come.
Substantive Clauses.
294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.
A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs:—
1. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade, induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,—
postulō ut fīat, I demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive fīat, let it be done!);
ōrat, nē abeās, he begs that you will not go away;
mīlitēs cohortātus est ut hostium impetum sustinērent, he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy;
Helvētiīs persuāsit ut exīrent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march forth.
a. Jubeō, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.
2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as,—
huic concēdō ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!);
cōnsulī permissum est ut duās legiōnēs scrīberet, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions.
3. With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions nē, quōminus, quīn); as,—
nē lūstrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of nē lūstrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);
prohibuit quōminus in ūnum coīrent, he prevented them from coming together;
nec quīn ērumperet, prohibērī poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth.
a. Quīn is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not necessarily used even then.
4. With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,—
cōnstitueram ut prīdiē Īdūs Aquīnī manērem, I had decided to remain at Aquinum on the 12th;
dēcrēvit senātus ut Opīmius vidēret, the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it;
convēnit ut ūnīs castrīs miscērentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.
5. With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,—
fac ut eum exōrēs, see to it that you prevail upon him!
cūrā ut vir sīs, see to it that you are a man!
labōrābat ut reliquās cīvitātēs adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him.
a. Cōnor, try, always takes the Infinitive.
NOTE.—Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as,—
sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to show;
licet redeās, you may return;
oportet loquāmur, we must speak.
On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as,—
nūlla causa est cūr timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: why should I fear? There's no reason);
nihil est quīn dīcam, there is no reason why I should not say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other examples are:—
eōs moneō dēsinant, I warn them to stop;
huic imperat adeat cīvitātēs, he orders him to visit the states.
B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.
296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:—
1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupiō, optō, volō, mālō (conjunctions ut, nē, ut nē); as,—
optō ut in hōc jūdiciō nēmō improbus reperiātur, I hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiātur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiātur, may no bad man be found!);
cupiō nē veniat, I desire that he may not come.
a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrībās, I wish you would write; vellem scrīpsisset, I wish he had written.
2. With expressions of fearing (timeō, metuō, vereor, etc.). Here nē means that, lest, and ut means that not; as,—
timeō nē veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he not come! I'm afraid [he will]);
timeō ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: may he come! I'm afraid [he won't]).
a. Nē nōn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause; as,—
nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fīat, I am not afraid that this will not happen;
vereor nē exercitum fīrmum habēre nōn possit, I fear that he is unable (nōn possit) to have a strong army.
C. Substantive Clauses of Result.
297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nōn) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words:—
1. As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially faciō, efficiō, cōnficiō). Thus:—
gravitās morbī facit ut medicīnā egeāmus, the severity of disease makes us need medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, ēvenit, contingit, accēdit, fierī potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus:—
ex quō efficitur, ut voluptās nōn sit summum bonum, from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good;
ita fit, ut nēmō esse possit beātus, thus it happens that no one can be happy;
accēdēbat ut nāvēs deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).
3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jūs est, mōs est, cōnsuētūdō est; also after neuter pronouns, hōc, illud, etc. Thus:—
est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem plūribus rēbus excellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things.
D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quīn.
298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quīn (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after nōn dubitō, I do not doubt; quis dubitat, who doubts?; nōn (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:—
quis dubitat quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint, who doubts that in virtue there are riches?
nōn dubium erat quīn ventūrus esset, there was no doubt that he was about to come.
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quīn-clause after nōn dubitō; as,—
nōn dubitāmus inventōs esse, we do not doubt that men were found
b. Nōn dubitō, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a quīn-clause.
E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.
299. 1. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially—
a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hōc, id, illud, illa, ex eō, inde, etc. Thus:—
illud est admīrātiōne dignum, quod captīvōs retinendōs cēnsuit, this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept;
hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod colloquimur inter nōs, in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other.
b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mīror, etc.; as,—
bene mihi ēvenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am sent to death;
bene fēcistī quod mānsistī, you did well in remaining.
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus:—
quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcō, id meī mūniendī causā faciō, as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;
quod mē Agamemnona aemulārī putās, falleris, as regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken.
F. Indirect Questions.
300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced—
a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,—
dīc mihi ubi fuerīs, quid fēcerīs, tell me where you were, what you did;
oculīs jūdicārī nōn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows;
bis bīna quot essent, nesciēbat, he did not know how many two times two were.
NOTE.—Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:—
effugere nēmō id potest quod futūrum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass; but saepe autem ne ūtile quidem est scīre quid futūrum sit, but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass.
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,—
Epamīnōndās quaesīvit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe;
disputātur num interīre virtūs in homine possit, the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man;
ex Sōcrate quaesītum est nōnne Archelāum beātum putāret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy.
NOTE.—Nōnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerō, as in the last example above.
2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as,—
nesciō quid faciam, I do not know what to do. (Direct: quid faciam, what shall I do!)
3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspectō, cōnor, experior, temptō) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sī; as,—
cōnantur sī perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break through.
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,—
pergit ad proximam spēluncam sī forte eō vēstīgia ferrent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither.
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4); viz.;—