New Latin Grammar

3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,—

4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tīnus, -tĭnus; as,—

C. VERBS.

1. Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -scō, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action; as,—

2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -tō or -sō. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō, as we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are—

a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,—

b. agitō, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.

3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -uriō; as,—

2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are—

a) From Nouns:—

b) From Adjectives:—

D. ADVERBS.

157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im; as,—

2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:—

a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -ātim; as,—

gradātim, step by step;

paulātim, gradually;

virītim, man by man.

b) With the suffix -tus; as,—

antīquitus, of old;

rādīcitus, from the roots.

c) With the suffix -ter; as,—

breviter, briefly.

II. COMPOUNDS.

158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound; the first member expresses some modification of this.

2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:—

a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7, 1.)

b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often appears as ĭ where we should expect ŏ or ă; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems ĭ is often inserted; as,—

signifer, standard-bearer;

tubicen, trumpeter;

magnanimus, high-minded;

mātricīda, matricide.

159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.

1. Nouns:—

a) Preposition + Noun; as,—

dē-decus, disgrace;

pro-avus, great-grandfather.

b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—

agri-cola, farmer;

frātri-cīda, fratricide.

2. Adjectives:—

a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,—

per-magnus, very great;

sub-obscūrus, rather obscure;

ā-mēns, frantic.

b) Adjective + Noun; as,—

magn-animus, great-hearted;

celeri-pēs, swift-footed.

c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—

parti-ceps, sharing;

morti-fer, death-dealing.

3. Verbs:—

The second member is always a verb. The first may be—

a) A Noun; as,—

aedi-ficō, build.

b) An Adjective; as,—

ampli-ficō, enlarge.

c) An Adverb; as,—

male-dīcō, rail at.

d) Another Verb; as,—

cale-faciō, make warm.

e) A Preposition; as,—

ab-jungō, detach;

re-ferō, bring back;

dis-cernō, distinguish;

ex-spectō, await.

NOTE.—Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:

ambi- (amb-), around;

dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder;

por-, forward;

red- (re-), back;

sēd- (sē-), apart from;

vē-, without.

4. Adverbs:—

These are of various types; as,—

anteā, before;

īlīcō (in locō), on the spot;

imprīmīs, especially;

obviam, in the way.

PART V.

SYNTAX.

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:—

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy is writing.

2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,—

quid puer scrībit, what is the boy writing?

3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,—

quot librōs scrībit, how many books he writes!

4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,—

scrībe, write!

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as—quis, quī, quālis, quantus, quot, quotiēns, quō, quā, etc. Thus:—

quis venit, who comes? quam dīū manēbit, how long will he stay?

2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced—

a) By nōnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,—

nōnne vidētis, do you not see?

b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,—

num exspectās, do you expect? (i.e. you don't expect, do you?)

c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,—

vidēsne, do you see?

A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the context; as,—

sēnsistīne, did you not perceive?

d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation; as,—

tū in jūdicum cōnspectum venīre audēs, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges?

3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? (= no one doubts).

4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles:—

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;

—— ... an.

If the second member is negative, annōn (less often necne) is used. Examples:—

a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nōnne, or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,—

Ā rēbus gerendīs abstrahit senectūs. Quibus? An eīs quae juventūte geruntur et vīrībus? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?

5. Answers.

a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vērō, sānē, or by repetition of the verb; as,—

'vīsne locum mūtēmus?' 'sānē'. 'Shall we change the place?' 'Certainly.'

'estīsne vōs lēgatī?' 'sumus.' 'Are you envoys?' 'Yes.'

b. The answer NO is expressed by nōn, minimē, minimē vērō, or by repeating the verb with a negative; as,—

'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nōn.' 'Has it passed?' 'No.'

'estne frāter intus?' 'nōn est.' 'Is your brother within?' 'No.'

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus puer librōs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.

165. COÖRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COÖRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit the two clauses are Coördinate; but in puer librōs legit quōs pater scrībit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be—

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy writes;

hīc scrībit, this man writes.

b) An Infinitive; as,—

decōrum est prō patriā morī, to die for one's county is a noble thing.

c) A Clause; as,—

opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, it happened opportunely that you saw.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,—

scrībō, I write; videt, he sees.

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as,—

ego scrībō et tū legis, I write, and you read.

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,—

rēctē ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; consul profectus (sc. est), the consul set out.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;^[47] as,—

Cicerō ōrātor fuit, Cicero was an orator;

Numa creātus est rēx, Numa was elected king.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,—

philosophia est vītae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are—

a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,—

Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, Croesus did not always remain king.

b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,—

Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, Romulus was called king;

habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,—

Cicerō cōnsul, Cicero, the Consul;

urbs Rōma, the city Rome.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,—

opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, the works of Cicero, the orator;

apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the father of history.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,—

assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, flattery, the promoter of evils.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,—

Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of Greece.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,—

mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,—

crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, believe me, judges.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus Albānus, hear ye, Alban people!

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, O son, alone the source of my great power.

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:—

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,—

cōnsulem interfēcit, he slew the consul;

legō librum, I read the book.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,—

librum scrīpsī, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, he constructs a temple.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely; as,—

rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, it is rumored that my son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in—

parentēs amāmus, we love our parents;

mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:—

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:—

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,—

hostēs circumstāre, to surround the enemy;

urbem praeterīre, to pass by the city;

mūrōs trānscendere, to climb over the walls.

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,—

adīre urbem, to visit the city;

peragrāre Italiam, to travel through Italy;

inīre magistrātum, to take office;

subīre perīculum, to undergo danger.

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as,—

queror fātum, I lament my fate;

doleō ejus mortem, I grieve at his death;

rīdeō tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.

So also lūgeō, maereō, mourn; gemō, bemoan; horreō, shudder, and others.

c) The impersonals decet, it becomes; dēdecet, it is unbecoming; juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,—

mē decet haec dīcere, it becomes me to say this.

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object; as,—

galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet;

cīnctus tempora hederā, having bound his temples with ivy;

nōdō sinus collēcta, having gathered her dress in a knot.

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as—

librum scrībō, I write a book;

domum aedificō, I build a house.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:—

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,—

haec gemēbat, he made these moans;

idem glōriārī, to make the same boast;

eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.

b) A Neuter Adjective,—particularly Adjectives of number or amount,—multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,—

multa egeō, I have many needs;

pauca studet, he has few interests;

multum valet, he has great strength;

nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.

NOTE.—In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as—

minitantem vāna, making vain threats;

acerba tuēns, giving a fierce look;

dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,—

multum sunt in vēnātiōne, they are much engaged in hunting.

a. So also plūrimum, very greatly; plērumque, generally; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,—

sempiternam servitūtem serviat, let him serve an everlasting slavery;

vītam dūram vīxī, I have lived a hard life.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,—

stadium currit, he runs a race;

Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling; as,—

piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea;

ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.

Two Accusatives—Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,—

mē hērēdem fēcit, he made me heir.

Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also—

eum jūdicem cēpēre, they took him as judge;

urbem Rōmam vocāvit, he called the city Rome;

sē virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,—

hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, covetousness renders men blind;

Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, Apollo adjudged Socrates the wisest man.

a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,—

urbs Rōma vocāta est, the city was called Rome.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and efficiō, for example, never take it.

Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:—

a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as,—

ōtium dīvōs rogat, he asks the gods for rest;

mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, you demand two speeches of me.

So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,—

opem ā tē poscō, I demand aid of you.

b) Verbs of teaching (doceō and its compounds); as,—

tē litterās doceō, I teach you your letters.

c) Verbs of inquiring; as,—

tē haec rogō, I ask you this;

tē sententiam rogō, I ask you your opinion.

d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,—

hōc tē moneō, I give you this advice;

mē id accūsās, you bring this accusation against me;

id cōgit nōs nātūra, nature compels us (to) this.

e) One Verb of concealing, cēlō; as,—

nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, I have not concealed the conversation from you.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,—

omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments;

rogātus sum sententiam, I was asked my opinion;

multa ādmonēmur, we are given many admonitions.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trāns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,—

mīlitēs flūmen trānsportat, he leads his soldiers across the river.

2. With other compounds this construction is rare.

3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,—

mīlitēs flūmen trādūcēbantur, the soldiers were led across the river.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers; as,—

tremit artūs, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble;

nūda genū, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare;

manūs revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.

2. Note that this construction—