What has been said of hyperbolas may be easily applied to parabolas. For if a parabola be represented by XAGK, touched by a right line XV in the vertex X, and the ordinates IA, VG be as any powers XIn, XVn, of the abscissas XI, XV; draw XT, GT, AH, whereof let XT be parallel to VG, and let GT, AH touch the parabola in G and A: and a body projected from any place A, in the direction of the right line AH, with a due velocity, will describe this parabola, if the density of the medium in each of the places G be reciprocally as the tangent GT. In that case the velocity in G will be the same as would cause a body, moving in a non-resisting space, to describe a conic parabola, having G for its vertex, VG produced downwards for its diameter, and for its latus rectum. And the resisting force in G will be to the force of gravity as GT to . Therefore if NAK represent an horizontal line, and both the density of the medium at A, and the velocity with which the body is projected, remaining the same, the angle NAH be any how altered, the lengths AH, AI, HX will remain; and thence will be given the vertex X of the parabola, and the position of the right line XI; and by taking VG to IA as XVn to XIn, there will be given all the points G of the parabola, through which the projectile will pass.
SECTION III.
Of the motions of bodies which are resisted partly in the ratio of the velocities, and partly in the duplicate of the same ratio.
PROPOSITION XI. THEOREM VIII.
If a body be resisted partly in the ratio and partly in the duplicate ratio of its velocity, and moves in a similar medium by its innate force only; and the times be taken in arithmetical progression; then quantities reciprocally proportional to the velocities, increased by a certain given quantity, will be in geometrical progression.
With the centre C, and the rectangular asymptotes CADd and CH, describe an hyperbola BEe, and let AB, DE, de, be parallel to the asymptote CH. In the asymptote CD let A, G be given points; and if the time be expounded by the hyperbolic area ABED uniformly increasing, I say, that the velocity may be expressed by the length DF, whose reciprocal GD, together with the given line CG, compose the length CD increasing in a geometrical progression.
For let the areola DEed be the least given increment of the time, and Dd will be reciprocally as DE, and therefore directly as CD. Therefore the decrement of , which (by Lem. II, Book II) is , will be also as or , that is, as . Therefore the time ABED uniformly increasing by the addition of the given particles EDde, it follows that decreases in the same ratio with the velocity. For the decrement of the velocity is as the resistance, that is (by the supposition), as the sum of two quantities, whereof one is as the velocity, and the other as the square of the velocity; and the decrement of is as the sum of the quantities and , whereof the first is itself, and the last is as : therefore is as the velocity, the decrements of both being analogous. And if the quantity GD reciprocally proportional to , be augmented by the given quantity CG; the sum CD, the time ABED uniformly increasing, will increase in a geometrical progression. Q.E.D.
COR. 1. Therefore, if, having the points A and G given, the time be expounded by the hyperbolic area ABED, the velocity may be expounded by the reciprocal of GD.
COR. 2. And by taking GA to GD as the reciprocal of the velocity at the beginning to the reciprocal of the velocity at the end of any time ABED, the point G will be found. And that point being found the velocity may be found from any other time given.
PROPOSITION XII. THEOREM IX.
The same things being supposed, I say, that if the spaces described are taken in arithmetical progression, the velocities augmented by a certain given quantity will be in geometrical progression.
In the asymptote CD let there be given the point R, and, erecting the perpendicular RS meeting the hyperbola in S, let the space described be expounded by the hyperbolic area RSED; and the velocity will be as the length GD, which, together with the given line CG, composes a length CD decreasing in a geometrical progression, while the space RSED increases in an arithmetical progression.
For, because the increment EDde of the space is given, the lineola Dd, which is the decrement of GD, will be reciprocally as ED, and therefore directly as CD; that is, as the sum of the same GD and the given length CG. But the decrement of the velocity, in a time reciprocally proportional thereto, in which the given particle of space DdeE is described, is as the resistance and the time conjunctly, that is, directly as the sum of two quantities, whereof one is as the velocity, the other as the square of the velocity, and inversely as the velocity; and therefore directly as the sum of two quantities, one of which is given, the other is as the velocity. Therefore the decrement both of the velocity and the line GD is as a given quantity and a decreasing quantity conjunctly; and, because the decrements are analogous, the decreasing quantities will always be analogous; viz., the velocity, and the line GD. Q.E.D.
COR. 1. If the velocity be expounded by the length GD, the space described will be as the hyperbolic area DESR.
COR. 2. And if the point G be assumed any how, the point G will be found, by taking GR to GD as the velocity at the beginning to the velocity after any space RSED is described. The point G being given, the space is given from the given velocity: and the contrary.
COR. 3. Whence since (by Prop. XI) the velocity is given from the given time, and (by this Prop.) the space is given from the given velocity; the space will be given from the given time: and the contrary.
PROPOSITION XIII. THEOREM X.
Supposing that a body attracted downwards by an uniform gravity ascends or descends in a right line; and that the same is resisted partly in the ratio of its velocity, and partly in the duplicate ratio thereof: I say, that, if right lines parallel to the diameters of a circle and an hyperbola, be drawn through the ends of the conjugate diameters, and the velocities be as some segments of those parallels drawn from a given point, the times will be as the sectors of the areas cut off by right lines drawn from the centre to the ends of the segments; and the contrary.
CASE 1. Suppose first that the body is ascending, and from the centre D, with any semi-diameter DB, describe a quadrant BETF of a circle, and through the end B of the semi-diameter DF draw the indefinite line BAP, parallel to the semi-diameter DF. In that line let there be given the point A, and take the segment AP proportional to the velocity. And since one part of the resistance is as the velocity, and another part as the square of the velocity, let the whole resistance be as AP2 + 2BAP. Join DA, DP, cutting the circle in E and T, and let the gravity be expounded by DA2, so that the gravity shall be to the resistance in P as DA2 to AP2 + 2BAP; and the time of the whole ascent will be as the sector EDT of the circle.
For draw DVQ, cutting off the moment PQ, of the velocity AP, and the moment DTV of the sector DET answering to a given moment of time; and that decrement PQ of the velocity will be as the sum of the forces of gravity DA2 and of resistance AP2 + 2BAP, that is (by Prop. XII, Book II, Elem.), as DP2. Then the area DPQ, which is proportional to PQ, is as DP2, and the area DTV, which is to the area DPQ as DT2 to DP2, is as the given quantity DT2. Therefore the area EDT decreases uniformly according to the rate of the future time, by subduction of given particles DTV, and is therefore proportional to the time of the whole ascent. Q.E.D.
CASE 2. If the velocity in the ascent of the body be expounded by the length AP as before, and the resistance be made as AP2 + 2BAP, and if the force of gravity be less than can be expressed by DA2; take BD of such a length, that AB2 - BD2 may be proportional to the gravity, and let DF be perpendicular and equal to DB, and through the vertex F describe the hyperbola FTVE, whose conjugate semi-diameters are DB and DF, and which cuts DA in E, and DP, DQ in T and V; and the time of the whole ascent will be as the hyperbolic sector TDE.
For the decrement PQ. of the velocity, produced in a given particle of time, is as the sum of the resistance AP2 + 2BAP and of the gravity AB2 - BD2, that is, as BP2 - BD2. But the area DTV is to the area DPQ as DT2 to DP2; and, therefore, if GT be drawn perpendicular to DF, as GT2 or GD2 - DF2 to BD2, and as GD2 to BP2, and, by division, as DF2 to BP2 - BD2. Therefore since the area DPQ is as PQ, that is, as BP2 - BD2, the area DTV will be as the given quantity DF2. Therefore the area EDT decreases uniformly in each of the equal particles of time, by the subduction of so many given particles DTV, and therefore is proportional to the time. Q.E.D.
CASE 3. Let AP be the velocity in the descent of the body, and AP2 + 2BAP the force of resistance, and BD2 - AB2 the force of gravity, the angle DBA being a right one. And if with the centre D, and the principal vertex B, there be described a rectangular hyperbola BETV cutting DA, DP, and DQ produced in E, T, and V; the sector DET of this hyperbola will be as the whole time of descent.
For the increment PQ of the velocity, and the area DPQ proportional to it, is as the excess of the gravity above the resistance, that is, as BD2 - AB2 - 2BAP - AP2 or BD2 - BP2. And the area DTV is to the area DPQ as DT2 to DP2; and therefore as GT2 or GD2 - BD2 to BP2, and as GD2 to BD2, and, by division, as BD2 to BD2 - BP2. Therefore since the area DPQ is as BD2 - BP2, the area DTV will be as the given quantity BD2. Therefore the area EDT increases uniformly in the several equal particles of time by the addition of as many given particles DTV, and therefore is proportional to the time of the descent. Q.E.D.
COR. If with the centre D and the semi-diameter DA there be drawn through the vertex A an arc At similar to the arc ET, and similarly subtending the angle ADT, the velocity AP will be to the velocity which the body in the time EDT, in a non-resisting space, can lose in its ascent, or acquire in its descent, as the area of the triangle DAP to the area of the sector DAt; and therefore is given from the time given. For the velocity in a non-resisting medium is proportional to the time, and therefore to this sector; in a resisting medium, it is as the triangle; and in both mediums, where it is least, it approaches to the ratio of equality, as the sector and triangle do.
SCHOLIUM.
One may demonstrate also that case in the ascent of the body, where the force of gravity is less than can be expressed by DA2 or AB2 + BD2, and greater than can be expressed by AB2 - DB2, and must be expressed by AB2. But I hasten to other things.
PROPOSITION XIV. THEOREM XI.
The same things being supposed, I say, that the space described in the ascent or descent is as the difference of the area by which the time is expressed, and of some other area which is augmented or diminished in an arithmetical progression; if the forces compounded of the resistance and the gravity be taken in a geometrical progression.
Take AC (in these three figures) proportional to the gravity, and AK to the resistance; but take them on the same side of the point A, if the body is descending, otherwise on the contrary. Erect Ab, which make to DB as DB2 to 4BAC: and to the rectangular asymptotes CK, CH, describe the hyperbola bN; and, erecting KN perpendicular to CK, the area AbNK will be augmented or diminished in an arithmetical progression, while the forces CK are taken in a geometrical progression. I say, therefore, that the distance of the body from its greatest altitude is as the excess of the area AbNK above the area DET.
For since AK is as the resistance, that is, as AP2 × 2BAP; assume any given quantity Z, and put AK equal to ; then (by Lem. II of this Book) the moment KL of AK will be equal to or , and the moment KLON of the area AbNK will be equal to or .
CASE 1. Now if the body ascends, and the gravity be as AB2 + BD2 BET being a circle, the line AC, which is proportional to the gravity, will be , and DP2 or AP2 + 2BAP + AB2 + BD2 will be AK × Z + AC × Z or CK × Z; and therefore the area DTV will be to the area DPQ as DT2 or DB2 to CK × Z.
CASE 2. If the body ascends, and the gravity be as AB2 - BD2, the line AC will be , and DT2 will be to DP2 as DF2 or DB2 to BP2 - BD2 or AP2 + 2BAP + AB2 - BD2, that is, to AK × Z + AC × Z or CK × Z. And therefore the area DTV will be to the area DPQ as DB2 to CK × Z.
CASE 3. And by the same reasoning, if the body descends, and therefore the gravity is as BD2 - AB2, and the line AC becomes equal to ; the area DTV will be to the area DPQ as DB2 to CK × Z: as above.
Since, therefore, these areas are always in this ratio, if for the area DTV, by which the moment of the time, always equal to itself, is expressed, there be put any determinate rectangle, as BD × m, the area DPQ, that is, , will be to BD × m as CK × Z to BD2. And thence PQ × BD3 becomes equal to 2BD × m × CK × Z, and the moment KLON of the area AbNK, found before, becomes . From the area DET subduct its moment DTV or BD × m, and there will remain . Therefore the difference of the moments, that is, the moment of the difference of the areas, is equal to ; and therefore as the velocity AP; that is, as the moment of the space which the body describes in its ascent or descent. And therefore the difference of the areas, and that space, increasing or decreasing by proportional moments, and beginning together or vanishing together, are proportional. Q.E.D.
COR. If the length, which arises by applying the area DET to the line BD, be called M; and another length V be taken in that ratio to the length M, which the line DA has to the line DE; the space which a body, in a resisting medium, describes in its whole ascent or descent, will be to the space which a body, in a non-resisting medium, falling from rest, can describe in the same time, as the difference of the aforesaid areas to ; and therefore is given from the time given. For the space in a non-resisting medium is in a duplicate ratio of the time, or as V2; and, because BD and AB are given, as . This area is equal to the area and the moment of M is m; and therefore the moment of this area is . But this moment is to the moment of the difference of the aforesaid areas DET and AbNK, viz., to , as to , or as into DET to DAP; and, therefore, when the areas DET and DAP are least, in the ratio of equality. Therefore the area and the difference of the areas DET and AbNK, when all these areas are least, have equal moments; and are therefore equal. Therefore since the velocities, and therefore also the spaces in both mediums described together, in the beginning of the descent, or the end of the ascent, approach to equality, and therefore are then one to another as the area , and the difference of the areas DET and AbNK; and moreover since the space, in a non-resisting medium, is perpetually as , and the space, in a resisting medium, is perpetually as the difference of the areas DET and AbNK; it necessarily follows, that the spaces, in both mediums, described in any equal times, are one to another as that area , and the difference of the areas DET and AbNK. Q.E.D.
SCHOLIUM.
The resistance of spherical bodies in fluids arises partly from the tenacity, partly from the attrition, and partly from the density of the medium. And that part of the resistance which arises from the density of the fluid is, as I said, in a duplicate ratio of the velocity; the other part, which arises from the tenacity of the fluid, is uniform, or as the moment of the time; and, therefore, we might now proceed to the motion of bodies, which are resisted partly by an uniform force, or in the ratio of the moments of the time, and partly in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. But it is sufficient to have cleared the way to this speculation in Prop. VIII and IX foregoing, and their Corollaries. For in those Propositions, instead of the uniform resistance made to an ascending body arising from its gravity, one may substitute the uniform resistance which arises from the tenacity of the medium, when the body moves by its vis insita alone; and when the body ascends in a right line, add this uniform resistance to the force of gravity, and subduct it when the body descends in a right line. One might also go on to the motion of bodies which are resisted in part uniformly, in part in the ratio of the velocity, and in part in the duplicate ratio of the same velocity. And I have opened a way to this in Prop. XIII and XIV foregoing, in which the uniform resistance arising from the tenacity of the medium may be substituted for the force of gravity, or be compounded with it as before. But I hasten to other things.
SECTION IV.
Of the circular motion of bodies in resisting mediums.
LEMMA III.
Let PQR be a spiral cutting all the radii SP, SQ, SR, &c., in equal angles. Draw the right line PT touching the spiral in any point P, and cutting the radius SQ in T; draw PO, QO perpendicular to the spiral, and meeting in O, and join SO. I say, that if the points P and Q approach and coincide, the angle PSO will become a right angle, and the ultimate ratio of the rectangle TQ × 2PS to PQ2 will be the ratio of equality.
For from the right angles OPQ, OQR, subduct the equal angles SPQ, SQR, and there will remain the equal angles OPS, OQS. Therefore a circle which passes through the points OSP will pass also through the point Q. Let the points P and Q coincide, and this circle will touch the spiral in the place of coincidence PQ, and will therefore cut the right line OP perpendicularly. Therefore OP will become a diameter of this circle, and the angle OSP, being in a semi-circle, becomes a right one. Q.E.D.
Draw QD, SE perpendicular to OP, and the ultimate ratios of the lines will be as follows: TQ to PD as TS or PS to PE, or 2PO to 2PS; and PD to PQ as PQ to 2PO; and, ex æquo perturbatè, to TQ to PQ as PQ to 2PS. Whence PQ2 becomes equal to TQ × 2PS. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION XV. THEOREM XII.
If the density of a medium in each place thereof be reciprocally as the distance of the places from an immovable centre, and the centripetal force be in the duplicate ratio of the density; I say, that a body may revolve in a spiral which cuts all the radii drawn from that centre in a given angle.
Suppose every thing to be as in the foregoing Lemma, and produce SQ to V so that SV may be equal to SP. In any time let a body, in a resisting medium, describe the least arc PQ, and in double the time the least arc PR; and the decrements of those arcs arising from the resistance, or their differences from the arcs which would be described in a non-resisting medium in the same times, will be to each other as the squares of the times in which they are generated; therefore the decrement of the arc PQ, is the fourth part of the decrement of the arc PR. Whence also if the area QSr be taken equal to the area PSQ, the decrement of the arc PQ will be equal to half the lineola Rr; and therefore the force of resistance and the centripetal force are to each other as the lineola and TQ which they generate in the same time. Because the centripetal force with which the body is urged in P is reciprocally as SP2, and (by Lem. X, Book I) the lineola TQ, which is generated by that force, is in a ratio compounded of the ratio of this force and the duplicate ratio of the time in which the arc PQ is described (for in this case I neglect the resistance, as being infinitely less than the centripetal force), it follows that TQ × SP2, that is (by the last Lemma), , will be in a duplicate ratio of the time, and therefore the time is as ; and the velocity of the body, with which the arc PQ is described in that time, as or , that is, in the subduplicate ratio of SP reciprocally. And, by a like reasoning, the velocity with which the arc QR is described, is in the subduplicate ratio of SQ reciprocally. Now those arcs PQ and QR are as the describing velocities to each other; that is, in the subduplicate ratio of SQ to SP, or as SQ to ; and, because of the equal angles SPQ, SQr, and the equal areas PSQ, QSr, the arc PQ is to the arc Qr as SQ to SP. Take the differences of the proportional consequents, and the arc PQ will be to the arc Rr as SQ to , or . For the points P and Q coinciding, the ultimate ratio of to is the ratio of equality. Because the decrement of the arc PQ arising from the resistance, or its double Rr, is as the resistance and the square of the time conjunctly, the resistance will be as . But PQ was to Rr as SQ to , and thence becomes as , or as . For the points P and Q coinciding, SP and SQ coincide also, and the angle PVQ becomes a right one; and, because of the similar triangles PVQ, PSO, PQ becomes to as OP to . Therefore is as the resistance, that is, in the ratio of the density of the medium in P and the duplicate ratio of the velocity conjunctly. Subduct the duplicate ratio of the velocity, namely, the ratio , and there will remain the density of the medium in P, as . Let the spiral be given, and, because of the given ratio of OS to OP, the density of the medium in P will be as . Therefore in a medium whose density is reciprocally as SP the distance from the centre, a body will revolve in this spiral. Q.E.D.
COR. 1. The velocity in any place P, is always the same wherewith a body in a non-resisting medium with the same centripetal force would revolve in a circle, at the same distance SP from the centre.
COR. 2. The density of the medium, if the distance SP be given, is as , but if that distance is not given, as . And thence a spiral may be fitted to any density of the medium.
COR. 3. The force of the resistance in any place P is to the centripetal force in the same place as to OP. For those forces are to each other as and TQ, or as and , that is, as and PQ, or and OP. The spiral therefore being given, there is given the proportion of the resistance to the centripetal force; and, vice versa, from that proportion given the spiral is given.
COR. 4. Therefore the body cannot revolve in this spiral, except where the force of resistance is less than half the centripetal force. Let the resistance be made equal to half the centripetal force, and the spiral will coincide with the right line PS, and in that right line the body will descend to the centre with a velocity that is to the velocity, with which it was proved before, in the case of the parabola (Theor. X, Book I), the descent would be made in a non-resisting medium, in the subduplicate ratio of unity to the number two. And the times of the descent will be here reciprocally as the velocities, and therefore given.
COR. 5. And because at equal distances from the centre the velocity is the same in the spiral PQR as it is in the right line SP, and the length of the spiral is to the length of the right line PS in a given ratio, namely, in the ratio of OP to OS; the time of the descent in the spiral will be to the time of the descent in the right line SP in the same given ratio, and therefore given.
COR. 6. If from the centre S, with any two given intervals, two circles are described; and these circles remaining, the angle which the spiral makes with the radius PS be any how changed; the number of revolutions which the body can complete in the space between the circumferences of those circles, going round in the spiral from one circumference to another, will be as , or as the tangent of the angle which the spiral makes with the radius PS; and the time of the same revolutions will be as , that is, as the secant of the same angle, or reciprocally as the density of the medium.
COR. 7. If a body, in a medium whose density is reciprocally as the distances of places from the centre, revolves in any curve AEB about that centre, and cuts the first radius AS in the same angle in B as it did before in A, and that with a velocity that shall be to its first velocity in A reciprocally in a subduplicate ratio of the distances from the centre (that is, as AS to a mean proportional between AS and BS) that body will continue to describe innumerable similar revolutions BFC, CGD, &c., and by its intersections will distinguish the radius AS into parts AS, BS, CS, DS, &c., that are continually proportional. But the times of the revolutions will be as the perimeters of the orbits AEB, BFC, CGD, &c., directly, and the velocities at the beginnings A, B, C of those orbits inversely; that is as , , . And the whole time in which the body will arrive at the centre, will be to the time of the first revolution as the sum of all the continued proportionals , , , going on ad infinitum, to the first term ; that is, as the first term to the difference of the two first , or as to AB very nearly. Whence the whole time may be easily found.
COR. 8. From hence also may be deduced, near enough, the motions of bodies in mediums whose density is either uniform, or observes any other assigned law. From the centre S, with intervals SA, SB, SC, &c., continually proportional, describe as many circles; and suppose the time of the revolutions between the perimeters of any two of those circles, in the medium whereof we treated, to be to the time of the revolutions between the same in the medium proposed as the mean density of the proposed medium between those circles to the mean density of the medium whereof we treated, between the same circles, nearly: and that the secant of the angle in which the spiral above determined, in the medium whereof we treated, cuts the radius AS, is in the same ratio to the secant of the angle in which the new spiral, in the proposed medium, cuts the same radius: and also that the number of all the revolutions between the same two circles is nearly as the tangents of those angles. If this be done every where between every two circles, the motion will be continued through all the circles. And by this means one may without difficulty conceive at what rate and in what time bodies ought to revolve in any regular medium.
COR. 9. And although these motions becoming eccentrical should be performed in spirals approaching to an oval figure, yet, conceiving the several revolutions of those spirals to be at the same distances from each other, and to approach to the centre by the same degrees as the spiral above described, we may also understand how the motions of bodies may be performed in spirals of that kind.
PROPOSITION XVI. THEOREM XIII.
If the density of the medium in each of the places be reciprocally as the distance of the places from the immoveable centre, and the centripetal force be reciprocally as any power of the same distance, I say, that the body may revolve in a spiral intersecting all the radii drawn from that centre in a given angle.
This is demonstrated in the same manner as the foregoing Proposition. For if the centripetal force in P be reciprocally as any power of the distance SP whose index is n + 1; it will be collected, as above, that the time in which the body describes any arc PQ, will be as ; and the resistance in P as , or as , and therefore as , that is, is a given quantity), reciprocally as . And therefore, since the velocity is reciprocally as , the density in P will be reciprocally as SP.
COR. 1. The resistance is to the centripetal force as to OP.
COR. 2. If the centripetal force be reciprocally as SP3, will be = 0; and therefore the resistance and density of the medium will be nothing, as in Prop. IX, Book I.
COR. 3. If the centripetal force be reciprocally as any power of the radius SP, whose index is greater than the number 3, the affirmative resistance will be changed into a negative.
SCHOLIUM.
This Proposition and the former, which relate to mediums of unequal density, are to be understood of the motion of bodies that are so small, that the greater density of the medium on one side of the body above that on the other is not to be considered. I suppose also the resistance, cæteris paribus, to be proportional to its density. Whence, in mediums whose force of resistance is not as the density, the density must be so much augmented or diminished, that either the excess of the resistance may be taken away, or the defect supplied.
PROPOSITION XVII. PROBLEM IV.
To find the centripetal force and the resisting force of the medium, by which a body, the law of the velocity being given, shall revolve in a given spiral.
Let that spiral be PQR. From the velocity, with which the body goes over the very small arc PQ, the time will be given; and from the altitude TQ, which is as the centripetal force, and the square of the time, that force will be given. Then from the difference RSr of the areas PSQ and QSR described in equal particles of time, the retardation of the body will be given; and from the retardation will be found the resisting force and density of the medium.
PROPOSITION XVIII. PROBLEM V.