On the Processes for the Production of Ex Libris (Book-Plates)

Where be the equal now of those glorious editions of the poets, the “Annuals,” “Keepsakes,” “Books of Beauty,” and other delightful volumes that still charm the eyes and glad the hearts of those who have the taste and the wit to possess them? As works of the highest art quality, they have never since been equalled for beauty of work, with their engraved titles, frontispieces, and illustrations in the text, drawn by Stothard, Turner, Creswick, Stanfield, Harding, and a host of the first names in British Art, and engraved in the rarest and most exquisite manner by men equally eminent in their line. “Woodcuts,” however, cut them out for the time, owing to the excellence to which the art had attained, and the greater rapidity and cheapness in printing.

In all the changes and inventions in the modes of art reproduction the engraved plate has steadily held its own as the most finished and perfect. For Ex Libris it is particularly suitable; it is par excellence THE STYLE for the attainment of the highest art quality.

The Art Journal, supported by one or two similar publications, has heroically endeavoured to maintain the traditions of the best period of the Art in its steel-plate illustrations, but, except for pictures of this kind, and of larger size for framing, illustrations on steel and copper for books may be said to be practically extinct.

Time, however, has its revenges: wood engraving, in its turn, is being rapidly displaced by “process blocks” (of which more anon), and now, if we take up any recent illustrated book or journal, we find the bulk of the pictures and designs not wood engravings but process blocks.

In every good collection of Ex Libris the majority of examples will be found to be printed from engraved plates, very few relatively being from wood blocks. The reason is not far to seek. The wood engraving as practised in England previous to the opening of the present century was poor in execution, and did not lend itself sufficiently to working out minute details with the same ease and readiness with which they can be executed on copper.

That it was the favourite mode of producing these dainty little works is evident also from the fact that copper-plate pictures for book illustrations of every kind had almost entirely superseded wood engraving, which had indeed fallen completely into disfavour. Until the beginning of the present century, when Bewick and others had elevated it into a fine art, wood engraving was in an exceedingly rude condition, and little fitted for small works. Copper-plate engraving, on the contrary, had for several centuries flourished successfully; every goldsmith was able to “chase” and engrave the decorative and heraldic work upon silver plate and goldsmiths’ work, or upon metal of any kind, in relief, or intaglio, as in medals, coins, etc. That this is no mere assumption we know from historical evidence, as well as from a careful comparison of the “handling,” or the manner of cutting the lines upon silver work, which is identical with the style of cutting the lines in so very many engraved book-plates of the last and early part of the present century. Whatever may be thought of the vagaries of the accessories in the Jacobean, Chippendale, and other kindred styles—which are essentially silver engraving patterns—much of this class of work shows at least a true heraldic spirit in the treatment of the charges.

Benvenuto Cellini, whose works now bring fabulous prices in goldsmith work, was an expert engraver as well, as were probably most of the workers in the precious metals of his time. Hogarth, in the earlier part of his career, did much in the way of engraving arms, crests, etc., for the silversmiths; so did Bewick, who worked on wood and on metal indifferently. The writer has done a fair share of similar work in his younger days; and to his knowledge it was the custom in many establishments for the engravers to do both, as the exigencies of business required, though the tendency when work was plentiful was to specialise, each man doing that part for which he seemed to have an aptitude. This refers particularly to graver work; the pictorial engraver executing his work principally by means of the etching process, and only finishing up with the graver.

No doubt a life-long practice in one particular class of work of this kind is calculated to engender a stiff and formal manner, and set patterns to become stereotyped, were it not for the capricious changes of fashion; sometimes slowly developed, at other times, a new fashion suddenly sets in and changes all; the later chasing the earlier out of the field, only to be elbowed aside in its turn. Styles of ornament, as they course each other down the stream of time, invariably leave their high-water marks on the margin, which serve as valuable data for the student; the prevailing styles of decorative and heraldic art, having, like all mundane things, their periods of development, full-blossoming, and decadence, the dates of which, book-plate collectors, aided by dated specimens, arrive at with tolerable certainty.

The prevalence of a particular style, its vogue and duration, will account in a great measure for the family likeness observable in so many book-plates; the chief factors, however, may be set down to the general low state of the art, the paucity of designers and engravers of merit, and the ample supply of the ordinary article—the mechanical craftsman.

As to the history and development of styles in Ex Libris, a reference to the works of the Hon. J. Leicester Warren, J. Paul Rylands, F.S.A., Egerton Castle, M.A., F.S.A., W. J. Hardy, and the pages of the Ex Libris Journal, will find the subject fully and plainly set forth.

A word as to the origin and history of Copper-Plate Engraving. The art of engraving on metal plates, for taking impressions on paper, was first practised by Tommaso Fineguerra, a Florentine goldsmith, about the year 1460. Some writers have claimed the invention for Germany, but it is generally considered that the art was first practised in Italy, and had its origin in the workshops of the goldsmith. An assistant is said to have suggested to Fineguerra the possibility of taking an impression from an engraved design with ink on moistened paper. The first book printed at Rome was illustrated by the first plate engraving. This work is dated 1478, but was commenced in 1472. Engraving made rapid strides towards excellence in Germany. Albert Dürer was a man whose universality of talent extended the boundaries of every department of art, and carried all to a degree of perfection previously unknown. He had great command of the graver, and carried his plates to a higher state of finish than his Italian contemporaries. He is also believed to have invented the art of etching by corrosion: on examining his etchings, we see that they have all been corroded at one “biting-in,” which sufficiently explains their monotonous appearance, and proves that “stopping-out” was not then understood. To the Dutch and Flemish schools we owe many improvements in the art. The celebrity of the French school dates from the time of Louis XIV. Gerard Audran was the first engraver who successfully united to any extent the use of the graver and the etching point. The English school of engraving dates only from the middle of the eighteenth century, previous to which those who practised the art in England were chiefly foreigners. Hogarth engraved many of his own designs. Francis Vivares introduced the art of landscape etching: he, Woollet, and Brown produced some of the first landscape engravings extant. Sir Robert Strange excelled in portrait engraving. Of the moderns who have attained eminence in the various branches of the art, the very enumeration of them would lead to needless length, the present purpose being chiefly to describe the processes.

THE VARIOUS MODES OF ENGRAVING ON
COPPER AND STEEL-PLATE.

There are many kinds of engraving on steel and copper for the purpose of printing by the copper-plate press. We will specify those principally in use and indicate their chief characteristics; afterwards, some further explanation may be necessary. It may be here stated that the various processes are of such a technical nature that it would be impossible in a short compass to explain all the details of execution; we may, however, refer those who desire to pursue the subject further to an excellent little handbook (price one shilling) published by Winsor and Newton,[2] which, as stated in the preface, will, by means of any of the modes of engraving on copper therein treated of, enable anyone “skilled in pen and ink drawing to reproduce their designs with greater delicacy and added depth of effect.” Other books on the subject there are, of greater cost, as Hamerton’s splendid work, but for the amateur the handy little manual just named is an admirable guide.

To one skilled in drawing, and with some leisure and enthusiasm for the work, Etching offers a delightful field for the exercise of the artistic mind. There are no technical difficulties that may not be surmounted by care and patience. The few tools and necessary appliances are not of a costly nature, if we except the copper-plate printing press.

There are different kinds or methods of engraving, the six principal varieties of which need only be considered, namely:—

• (1) Line Engraving.
• (2) Etching.
• (3) Soft-ground Etching.
• (4) Aquatint Engraving.
• (5) Mezzotint Engraving.
• (6) Stipple Engraving.

The distinctive features of all copper-plate and steel-plate engraving consist in this, that the lines or strokes composing the design are cut or ploughed into the surface of the metal with a fine tool termed a graver, etched or corroded out with acid or by other means. A Print is obtained by filling the lines so made with a special ink composed of a drying oil and colour-pigment. During the process of inking the plate is kept warm, the superfluous ink being wiped off with a coarse muslin rag, and made perfectly clean. The plate, placed in the travelling bed of the copper-plate press, is covered with a sheet of paper slightly damp; on turning the press, it is subjected to such pressure as forces the paper into the lines; by this means the ink is transferred to the paper, and the result is an impression or proof.

1.—LINE ENGRAVING.

The majority of the earlier book-plates are engraved, or cut into the plate entirely with the graver, and may properly be termed line engraving par excellence.

As early examples of this style of work we are enabled to give reproductions of several book-plates, viz., Kress of Kressenstein, by Hans Troschel, 1699, p. 28; the portrait plate of Samuel Pepys, by Robert White, p. 31; two plates engraved by Hogarth, pp. 40-41. The Ex Libris of William Cowper, Clerk of the Parliaments; Edward Loveden Loveden; —— Barrow; and Henʸ Jamˢ Pye, also illustrate the quality of line or graver work alone. The examples interspersed in the text carry their own explanation.

As modern examples of this style we are enabled to give several characteristic varieties—the library interior of W. H. K. Wright, by J. E. Wood, of Plymouth, and a number designed by the writer and engraved by Marcus Ward & Co., Limited, printed by lithography—all of which will be found useful as keys to the style of handling of graver work alone, and in combination with etching.

Among the chief exponents of the art may be mentioned the name of C. W. Sherborn, who is facile princeps as an engraver of heraldic subjects. One of his smaller works, engraved in pure line, appears facing page 27, the dainty crest plate of R. Day, F.S.A., printed direct from the copper-plate; a favourite old toast, in playful allusion to the wings in the crest, doing duty as a motto.

2.—ETCHING.

This method admits greater freedom of handling than graver work. The design is drawn through a resisting ground with the etching point, and the exposed lines on the surface of the copper corroded to the requisite depth with aquafortis, the finishing of the work being usually done with the graver.

Machine ruling or tinting is now much used in conjunction with line engraving and etching, for the even tints of skies and level surfaces in pictorial work, and for the symbolical lines denoting tinctures in heraldry, of which several examples are given.

Steel-plates were used for engraving very fine work, or when large numbers of copies were required to be printed from the plate. Any advantage over copper which steel formerly possessed is now neutralised by the process known as steel facing, that is, coating the copper plate with an electro deposit of iron.

Copper-plate printing, as it is termed, though giving the most perfect result, is slow and tedious, and necessarily costly. A much speedier method of printing—by Lithography—is now much used instead, transfers from the engraved plate being put on the lithographic stone and printed therefrom, the original plate being retained intact. (See examples under Lithography).

Some early examples of etched plates are given. The urn design of Charles Bragge, Armorial Landscape, and Bewickian Landscape show the character and handling of etched work as distinguished from line engraving. Other examples illustrate the combination of Line, Etching, and Machine Ruling work.

3.—SOFT-GROUND ETCHING.

A very charming style of work which was much used by Bartolozzi and other engravers of his time, but now gone entirely out of use. A suitable book-plate engraved in this manner not turning up in time, the present fine example of the style was selected to illustrate the character of the work, which bears a close resemblance to a chalk drawing, and on that account offers considerable difficulties in the way of reproduction by the half-tone process. The result is, however, successful in a remarkable degree in translating the peculiar texture of the original.

The allegorical device represents the turret-crowned goddess Cybele, “mother of a hundred gods,” standing upon an isolated rock in the sea, holding out an olive-branch, and with her attribute, the rudder, as guide and director of the destinies of cities and states; youthful figures representing the Arts and Sciences—which are the glory of a State—are disporting themselves in the clouds.

Though not originally intended for a book-plate, a friend is desirous of adopting it, with the motto from Virgil, “Fato prudentia major”—to intimate that, in his opinion, prudence is greater than fate.

4.—AQUATINT ENGRAVING.

A style of work having all the appearance of a china ink drawing, and frequently used by artists in conjunction with etching, to give body and consistency to the tints. An admirable example of this combination of etching and aquatint is the charming book-plate of the Hon. Leicester Warren, by W. Bell Scott, well known to collectors. It does not, however, lend itself well to reproduction.

The texture, which may be of various degrees of fineness, is produced on the plate by a solution of resin (dissolved in pure spirit), which is poured over the surface; as the spirit evaporates it leaves the resin in minute isolated particles adhering to the plate. The design is traced or transferred upon it, the highest lights “stopped out” with engravers’ varnish. The etching (or biting-in with acid) is then proceeded with; repeated stoppings out and etchings are made as the deeper shades are attained.

5.—MEZZOTINT ENGRAVING.

Produced by roughening the surface of the plate by a rocking tool, and the lights and shades attained by scraping and burnishing. Seldom used for small work, but largely used combined with Nos. 1 and 2 for prints and pictures. The small French print of the Virgin and Child, reproduced by half-tone process block, represents fairly well the character of the work. (See example under “Half-tone Process Blocks.”)

6.—STIPPLE ENGRAVING.

Performed with the graver or other tool, which is so managed as to produce the tints by small dots. This method is much used for statuary and for portraits particularly, the rest of the picture being generally executed by some of the other methods, Nos. 1 and 2 especially.