Generally speaking, the foremen gain their training from experience and study; night schools have been started in some of the cities of the country, which are giving courses in concrete work, particularly for the man who is anxious to better his position.
PLAN No. 1165. FINISHERS
The repairing of imperfections in the concrete surfaces and the finishing or floating of flat surfaces requires the work of the finisher. He must possess manual dexterity so that he can handle a float skillfully and must know when a surface has been worked sufficiently. Skill is also required in pointing up or repairing imperfections in surface from which forms have been removed. His wages range from 50 to 60 cents per hour. His training is received on the job.
PLAN No. 1166. MIXER OPERATOR
Several things are required of a mixer operator. First he must have some mechanical skill and be able to handle and to take care of a steam or gas engine or an electric motor. He should be able to repair the mixer in case of a breakdown. He must also know something of proportioning and of consistencies required for different mixtures and under different conditions. Wherever any considerable amount of concreting is done the services of a mixer operator are required. The wages are practically the same as for finishers. His training is gained through experience on the job.
PLAN No. 1167. FORM BUILDERS
Form builders are carpenters and must have the experience and training required in that trade.
PLAN No. 1168. REINFORCING PLACERS
Reinforcing placers are very often laborers under the direction of a skilled foreman. Their duties are to place the reinforcing steel according to the specifications prepared by the engineer. In some of the larger cities the Structural Steel Workers’ Union requires that all placing of reinforcing be done by men from their union. The wages vary according to locality. Very little training or experience is necessary.
PLAN No. 1169. RURAL CONTRACTORS
Rural contractors comprise a very numerous group, handling concrete jobs in the smaller cities and towns throughout the country. Endowed with an ordinary amount of business judgment, the rural contractor usually becomes a well-to-do business man. He usually acts as his own superintendent directing his jobs personally. The average rural contractor is independent and commands the respect of the business men of his community. His income is variable but always affords a good living if his business is well managed. His income is often comparable with that of the larger merchants in the community.
Road and Highway Group
A large number of the occupations in this division are analogous to the positions in the structural division.
PLAN No. 1170. ENGINEER
On practically all public highways the outlining of the plans and specifications are left to the county or state highway engineer. His course of technical training should include specialized work in highway engineering. He must be thoroughly reliable and of unquestionable integrity, as his judgment in matters pertaining to the construction of highways and roads must be faultless.
Only recently the states of Illinois and Pennsylvania voted enormous bond issues to be used in the construction of permanent hard-surfaced roads. Many other states are planning to appropriate huge sums for the same purpose. Never before has the opportunity for the highway engineer been so great. The training required and the salary paid are very similar to those of the structural engineer.
PLAN No. 1171. INSPECTOR
As in structural work the building of highways is usually let to a contractor and the engineer places an inspector as his representative on the job. The duties of the inspector are practically the same as upon structural work.
PLAN No. 1172. SUPERINTENDENT
In a general way all that has been said regarding a superintendent of structural work applies to the superintendent of highway work. He should understand how the grading in preparation for the building of roads should be done and be able to carry on the construction of the road efficiently, with as little delay and as economically as possible.
PLAN No. 1173. FOREMAN
The foreman on road work has usually been trained in the school of experience and has learned the various requirements of good concrete road building. He has shown by hard work and superior ability that he is able to handle the position of foreman of the highway building gang. In a general way his requirements are the same as heretofore mentioned.
PLAN No. 1174. MIXER OPERATOR, FINISHER, REINFORCING PLACER
The requirements are the same as in structural work.
PLAN No. 1175. FORM SETTER
Before it is possible to place any concrete it is necessary to build side rails to contain the concrete. This work is done by form setters. No special training is required.
Products Group
The making of various concrete products is a field which is increasing in importance. The construction of block, brick, tile, sewer, and pressure pipe, silo staves, ornamental trim, structural units, lamp posts, fence posts, telephone and telegraph poles, burial vaults, kitchen sinks, bath and laundry tubs, garden furniture, roofing and floor tile, cribbing fences, columns and grindstones are included in this group. The concrete products industry is coming into a position of dignity and importance. The day of the incompetent man is passing, and his product—the pasty looking, porous cement block—is giving way to the real concrete unit, structurally sound and architecturally beautiful. The factory-made concrete block of quality has made its way against the prejudice created by inferior products and against a conservatism which requires a new material to prove beyond any possibility of doubt its superiority to materials with which builders are acquainted. Concrete units have suffered through the ignorance which has placed them upon the market as substitutes and imitations rather than as products of a material having its own distinctive qualities and characteristic charm.
The development of concrete stone manufacture depends upon the possibility of the market, skillful workmanship, economical operation and competent management; upon the utilization of the best available materials and equipment in preference to makeshifts and clumsy manual labor. It depends on artistic perception, and also upon the appreciation of public demands.
This line of work presents a wonderful opportunity for the man who desires to eventually go into business for himself. The amount of capital required for the start is comparatively small. However, before entering this line of business a very careful study should be made of the management, manufacture, and marketing of concrete products.
PLAN No. 1176. MANAGER
In large plants a manager is employed by the operating company, but in smaller plants the proprietor usually acts as manager. The man who undertakes the management of an enterprise of this kind should understand business principles and have training and experience in business life; he must be familiar with the requirements of the product which he is manufacturing; he should not attempt to manufacture too large a line of products, but should specialize according to the demands of the locality in which he is situated.
PLAN No. 1177. FOREMAN
The foreman is in active charge of the manufacturing of the products and has direct charge of the labor employed. The requirements for his position are the same as have already been mentioned for a foreman.
PLAN No. 1178. MACHINE OPERATORS
A large percentage of concrete products are manufactured in specially designed machines which require some skill in operating. The operator must know the machine thoroughly. His training is gained by experience.
PLAN No. 1179. MODELER
If ornamental work is undertaken the services of a modeler are absolutely necessary. To produce products artistic in design requires the services of a man trained in an art school. From a clay model, molds of plaster or glue are made in which the concrete is poured. Most of the modeler’s work is done indoors, usually in a well lighted studio. His salary is variable and dependent upon his ability. Demand for his services is not very general at the present, but the occupation holds many very promising allurements for the man who has ability.
PLAN No. 1180. PATTERN MAKER
In some cases it is necessary to make wooden forms for ornamental trim work. The making of these forms requires the services of a pattern maker. The requirements and qualifications for this position have been discussed in other monographs.
PLAN No. 1181. PLASTER AND GLUE MOLD MAKER
It is the work of a plaster and glue mold maker to take the model which has been designed and make a plaster or glue mold in which the concrete will be placed. His experience and training is gained by actual work with the material, either in the shop or in the school. This occupation requires considerable mechanical ability. In smaller plants the modeling and mold making are frequently done by one man.
Miscellaneous
Each one of the various groups which have been mentioned requires an office force, and commonly in the case of the concrete products group salesmen are employed.
Re-education
To the man who has been disabled, some place in the field of concrete construction activities may present a life work which has a future both big and bright. The work is vitally interesting and alive. If you have the determination and ability the way is clear to assume almost any of the responsible positions reviewed in this monograph. Do not expect to step from the hospital or from the vocational institution into the highest position; the minor jobs are stepping stones to the bigger ones. Make up your mind that you will attain the highest possible position in that phase of the construction industry in which you are engaged, and by diligent application you will ultimately reach this goal. The industry is large and there are opportunities for everyone to whom the doing of big things appeals. Talk with the re-educational expert with whom you should in any case get acquainted, and learn of schools near your home that are giving instruction in the various phases of concrete construction.
PLAN No. 1182. CEMENT MANUFACTURE
With the increase in construction activities the demand upon the manufacturers of Portland Cement becomes greater. However, the manufacture of this product does not present as large an opportunity to you as does the field of concrete construction. In the actual manufacture of this product there are few positions which make a direct appeal.
However, in the laboratories, which are maintained by all manufacturing companies there is an opportunity for you if you are interested in chemistry or physics. Elaborate tests, both chemical and physical, are made of this product. If you have had training in chemical engineering, here is an opportunity for you to get into work which is interesting, of which the future is assured. If you have not had the training, the chemical engineering departments of our colleges present the opportunity for study and research work. If your mind is made up to enter the cement testing laboratory, specialize on this subject while taking your course of training.
PLAN No. 1183. THE LAW AS A VOCATION
Acknowledgment
For the material of this monograph the Federal Board for Vocational Education is indebted to the Vocation Bureau, Boston, through its publication The Law as a Vocation, of which this pamphlet is largely an abstract. The monograph was prepared by Dr. H. L. Smith, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.
Are You Thinking of Becoming a Lawyer?
If you are and have not yet made up your mind, you will want to read this pamphlet, because it tells what the leading men in the profession of law say about law as a vocation. It tells you the answers that these men give to questions that are in your mind.
If you are thinking of entering the profession of law, you want to know the answers to these questions:
1. What kind of work should I have to do as a lawyer?
2. What personal characteristics should I possess to be successful as a lawyer?
3. How much general education ought I to have as a basis for a course in law?
4. What specific training should I need if I decide to become a lawyer, and how long would it take?
5. How should I be admitted to the bar?
6. What income may I reasonably expect to earn if I am successful in practice?
7. What are some other rewards to a lawyer in addition to the earnings from practice?
8. How many years would it take me to establish myself in practice?
9. How great a need is there for lawyers?
10. How much will it cost me to get an education suitable for the practice of law?
What Kind of Work Should I Have to do as a Lawyer?
“The work of the law is to establish rights, satisfy claims, protect the innocent against wrongdoers, secure convictions for the guilty, and to maintain a cause in the face of all forms of opposition and misrepresentation.”[35]
[35] The Law as a Vocation, p. 68, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.
The profession of law, therefore, is a profession of action rather than inaction, of fighting for a cause. In this fight the lawyer finds his work in two rather distinct fields, office practice and court practice. Office practice again subdivides itself into practice of a public nature and practice of a private nature. Office practice of a private nature consists very largely in the examination of titles to property, the drafting of legal papers, such as deeds and contracts, the acting as trustee or guardian, the collection of accounts, and the giving of general legal advice. In the office practice of a public nature, the lawyer acts as public administrator, referee in bankruptcy proceedings, auditor of public accounts, etc.
In the field of court practice the lawyer deals with criminal cases, damage suits, etc. It is in this field that there is the greatest nervous strain, but at the same time the greatest opportunity for building up a wide reputation. In court practice an attorney conducting a case usually consults other lawyers and has their aid and counsel as associates in the case.
Both in office and court practice lawyers usually become notaries or justices for the convenience of clients in the acknowledgment of deeds, the making of affidavits, etc. Classified on a still different basis the principal fields of practice in law are five in number. Any lawyer would usually have the bulk of his practice in one of these five fields, acting in one of the following capacities: General practitioner, criminal lawyer, tort lawyer, real estate lawyer, patent lawyer. All but the first of these represent specialized fields.
The general practitioner performs various kinds of legal services, any kind in fact that may be called for in the community in which he lives.
The criminal lawyer limits his practice chiefly to work in criminal courts and deals with offenses that have been committed against society.
The tort lawyer deals with damage suits. The work of the tort lawyer is often divided into two fields, that of the plaintiff lawyer and that of the defendant lawyer. The plaintiff lawyer does work for those parties who are claiming damage. The defendant lawyer does work for those individuals or organizations that are sued for damage. Generally the defendant lawyer serves a liability or insurance company, corporation or other employer.
The real-estate lawyer is engaged largely in examining titles, and in acting as trustee and thus holding funds for investment. His work naturally brings him in close touch with both the buying and the selling end of the real-estate business, so that he usually, himself, engages to some extent in that business.
The patent lawyer assists in getting patents from the National Government, and in acting as an attorney in patent cases.
The following quotation affords a description of the work of a lawyer from another point of view:
“The lawyer spends a part of his time in studying law, reading statutes, decisions, reports, and treatises. The printed decisions in various States range from 1 to 18 or 20 volumes a year. With these and other legal material the lawyer is bound to have some acquaintance. Furthermore, the lawyer spends part of his time studying miscellaneous topics, which become the subject of litigation, such as street paving, the coal business, the chemistry of wall paper, and so on. Every science may have something to say to the lawyer. Part of his time is spent in consultation with his clients; first of all to ascertain the facts of their cases, and afterwards to explain to them their rights on the facts. He also spends time in writing letters and doing sundry business incidental to giving advice to his clients. This work for the client branches out into a search for missing witnesses, examination of records of deeds to discover the ownership of real estate, the perusal of the account books of a client to find out the balance of a claim or similar investigation. Furthermore, part of his time is spent in writing of pleadings and briefs; the pleadings are the statement of claim or defense made by him to the court; the briefs are his written arguments of law giving the legal reasons why the law favors his client’s case. Finally, he spends much of his time in arguments to the judge and jury, and in the examination of witnesses and other proceedings in court. Here, as in all occupations, nine-tenths of the work is what may be called routine work or even drudgery. This can not be escaped. The lawyer does not spend his time in preparing and delivering eloquent orations. As in other occupations, the really interesting work, full of perpetual zest, is usually a small part of the whole.”[36]
[36] The Law as a Vocation, pp. 24-25, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.
What Personal Characteristics Should I Possess to be Successful as a Lawyer?
The answer to the first part of this question is best given in the following quotation:
Certain personal qualities are fundamental for a success in the law; others though of high value are secondary.
The fundamental qualities are as follows:
1. Moral integrity, worthy of the trust often involved in handling the property and other interests of clients, or able to withstand inducements to unprofessional conduct. This involves intellectual honesty.
2. Persistence, to carry on to completion any piece of work undertaken. This means unlimited capacity for hard work.
3. Sound judgment, to take a right and well-informed attitude in questions involving law and facts.
4. Self-confidence, a belief in one’s ability successfully to handle a task when once entered into.
5. Concentration, power to bring all one’s thought and activities to bear on a case in hand.
These basal qualities, with adequate training in the profession are likely to bring at least a fair degree of success; the lack of any one of them is a serious handicap, and accounts for most failures.[37]
[37] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins Publ. Serv.
The loss of an eye, a hand, an arm, a foot, or a leg would not seriously interfere with one’s success as a lawyer. Good health is highly desirable but physical strength is not an essential to the practitioner.
How Much General Education Ought I to Have as a Basis for a Course in Law?
Some years ago even the best law schools did not require any definite amount of education for entrance into the school. In fact many individuals with only a common-school education read law in an office and took up the practice without any training in a law school. At the present, however, every person looking forward to the practice of law is urged to graduate from a law school. All reputable law schools now require at least a four-year high-school course for admission. Many of these law schools, especially those connected with the large universities, require in addition to the four-year high-school work one year, and in some cases two years, of college work as a preparation. Two law schools admit only students who have a college degree of A. B. or B. S.
What Specific Training Should I Need, If I Decide to Become a Lawyer, and How Long Will It Take?
There was a time when by reading law in an office one could get a fairly adequate training for the practice of law. Particularly was this true of preparation for practice in small towns. Even at the present time this method is followed to some extent in small towns that are long distances from law schools. The rapidly increasing complexity of the law, however, now practically necessitates at least a partial course in a law school and makes desirable a complete course. The late Chief Justice Waite said:
“The time has gone by when an eminent lawyer, in full practice, can take a class of students into his office and become their teacher. Once that was practicable, but now it is not. The consequence is that law schools are now a necessity.”[38]
[38] The Law as a Vocation, p. 40, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.
The method of training for the law now recommended, therefore, is training in a law school rather than in a law office. The practical experience of the office has recently been supplied in the best law schools by the practice court, thus doing away with the former objection to the law school, namely, that it furnished to the student no experience in methods of handling and conducting cases. The practice court or moot court, as now introduced into the progressive law schools of the country, is described by one of our State universities as follows:
“The work of the practice court is divided into three parts, that of the law term, that of the jury term, and that of the appellate jurisdiction. The court is provided with a full corps of officers, including the members of the faculty who may sit from time to time as a presiding judge, the full bench of judges sitting as a supreme court, a clerk, a sheriff, and the necessary deputies. Ample and commodious rooms have been provided for the use of the court, including a court room furnished with the fittings necessary for the trial of jury cases, and a clerk’s office. The latter is provided with the books and records used in actual practice. The purpose of the court is to afford to the student practical instruction in pleading and practice both at law and equity under the common-law system and the “Code” or “reformed” procedure, and actual experience in the commencement and trial of cases through all stages. In commencing the actions the students assigned to the cases are permitted to select the State in which the action is supposed to be brought, thus enabling the student to acquire the practice as prevailing in his own State. All questions of practice, pleading, and procedure are governed by the law of the State in which the action is so laid, but the questions of substantive law are determined according to the weight of authority.”[39]
[39] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins Publ. Service, Philadelphia, Pa.
The degree LL. B., which is the principal degree given by the American law schools, was granted by 96 schools according to the report of the committee on legal education of the American Bar Association for 1906. Of these 96 schools, 48 required a three-years’ course of study beyond the full four years’ high-school course. Nineteen of these schools granted the master’s degree LL.M., after one year of postgraduate study.
How Should I Be Admitted to the Bar?
Each State has its own bar or legal society and admission is granted to the applicant in accordance with the regulations in force in each State. Twenty-eight States have an examining board; 19 States require the approximate completion of a high-school course; 17 States prescribe no definite period of study; 1 State prescribes a period of 18 months; 12 States prescribe a period of two years; 23 States prescribe a period of three years; and 10 States accept graduates of certain law schools without examination.
The tendency at the present time is to continue the past practice of raising standards of admission. This tendency has been supported by the American Bar Association, and with its promise to continue interest in this matter it should not be long until there are evolved uniform requirements that will constitute a national standard on a high plane.
What Income May I Reasonably Expect to Earn if I am Successful in Practice?
It is difficult to estimate, except very generally, what the average yearly earnings of a lawyer will be. It is difficult to do this, because the income will vary according to the locality and the character of the service in which one is engaged. Generally speaking, during the first year of his independent practice a lawyer’s earnings will seldom net him more than a few hundred dollars. With experience and acquaintance, however, his competence will increase. If a lawyer chooses to serve an apprenticeship as it were with another firm, he may reasonably expect from $3 to $10 a week at the beginning, with an increase after three or six months according to the amount of practice in the office in which he is engaged.
The following quotations would tend to discourage one from entering upon the profession, unless he is by nature and training well prepared for the work:
“Its (the profession of law) demands are so high and the conditions of genuine success so exacting, however, that it is inevitable that many of the ill-equipped and misguided beginners who flood the ranks of the legal profession should fail of success.”[40]
[40] The Law as a Vocation, p. 13, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.
“The field is greatly overcrowded and the average earnings very small. This is the great objection. Only the more able and fortunate in securing profitable legal practice can hope to win more than a bare competency. Young men may not only be indebted to their family and friends for a course of study covering three or four years in preparation, but after that for a period of 5, 10, or even 15 years consumed in acquiring a competent practice. Many never reach such a practice, and are obliged to turn to some other occupation for part or full income, or to come down to the end of life in straitened circumstances, unable to do for their families what was earlier done for them to place them in the profession.”[41]
[41] The Law as a Vocation, pp. 66-67, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.
“In 1912 the secretary of the Harvard Law School sent letters to all of the graduates of the school from 1902 to 1911, inclusive, asking for their net earnings each year since graduation. The reports returned are indicated in the following table, although it is to be remembered in this connection that less than half of those written responded and it can reasonably be assumed that these represent the more successful.”[42]
[42] Vocational Studies, pp. 15-16, U. S. Bureau of Education, Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa.
| Year. | Number of replies. |
Average earnings. |
|---|---|---|
| First | 694 | $664 |
| Second | 609 | 1,110 |
| Third | 497 | 1,645 |
| Fourth | 411 | 2,150 |
| Fifth | 317 | 2,668 |
| Sixth | 249 | 3,118 |
| Seventh | 162 | 3,909 |
| Eighth | 112 | 4,426 |
| Ninth | 62 | 5,321 |
| Tenth | 40 | 5,825 |
What Are Some Other Rewards to a Lawyer in Addition to Earnings From Practice?
Legal training fits a man not only to practice law but to enter other fields of activity. The lawyer may enter into commercial affiliations and into political life through the judiciary, legislative, or executive branches of the Government. Men trained in the law may serve the public as attorneys for towns, cities, counties, districts, States, or the Nation. These positions in the State and Federal service are as follows:
(1) Town or city solicitor.
(2) County or district attorney.
(3) Attorney general for the State and his assistants.
(4) United States district attorney and his assistants.
(5) Attorney General of the United States and his regular and special assistants.
Many lawyers also are connected with various National Government bureaus, such as the Bureau of Insular Affairs, etc.
Practicing lawyers are also often chosen as professors or lecturers in law schools and other schools, such as schools of commerce and finance, medical schools, colleges, and universities. For those lawyers who have a literary inclination there is opportunity for its exercise in writing for law journals, secular magazines, daily press, etc. A lawyer’s training naturally brings him before the people as a leader in movements for public good, if he is at all public spirited. Finally many lawyers have an opportunity for becoming counsellors for the people in general in the practice before legislative bodies considering public interests. Special economic and industrial problems demand for their best solution legal ability of the very highest order.
How Many Years Would It Take Me to Establish Myself in Practice?
The young lawyer may get into practice in one of two ways: First, as an employee; second, as an independent practitioner. In the first case, he usually becomes an assistant in some law office, where he stays from one to five years, possibly permanently by becoming a member of the firm. In the second case, as an independent practitioner, he gets into the practice primarily through the business of his own personal friends, through the advertising that these friends give him to their friends, and finally through his own clients, one client leading to another. The lawyer’s advertising, therefore, is of an indirect nature. Every ambitious young lawyer looks forward to the time when he can get into the profession on his own account, and to this end he should strive at all times to build up a good reputation and to become generally known in his community. One must count on working faithfully for several years, particularly if he is an independent practitioner, before he can enjoy a comfortable income.
How Great a Need is There for Lawyers?
The legal profession is rapidly becoming overcrowded. During the period from 1870 to 1900 the percentage of increase in the number engaged in the practice of law was 180.1 per cent. The following table sets forth the growth and percentage of increase in membership of the professions of medicine, theology, and law from 1870 to 1900:
Growth and per cent of increase in memberships of the professions of theology, medicine, and the law from 1870 to 1900. Statistics of Occupations, Twelfth Census of the United States.
| Year. | Theology. | Medicine. | Law. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1870 | 43,874 | 62,449 | 40,736 |
| 1880 | 64,698 | 85,671 | 64,137 |
| 1890 | 88,203 | 104,805 | 89,630 |
| 1900 | 111,638 | 132,002 | 114,460 |
| Per cent of increase | 154.4 | 11.5 | 180.1 |
In the opinion of the leading members of the American bar to-day the practicing of law is a very poor vocation for the incompetent and poorly equipped.
How Much Will It Cost Me to Get an Education Suitable for the Practice of Law?
If you are a soldier or a sailor discharged from the service since October 6, 1917, with a disability for which the War-Risk Insurance will grant you compensation, your education will be furnished free by the Government. The War-Risk Insurance Bureau, through its compensation, will meet a part of the expenses, and the Federal Board for Vocational Education will supplement that amount to a minimum of $65 a month, with the purpose of meeting all of your expenses for living, clothing, transportation, tuition, and incidentals.
It is the hope that this pamphlet may serve the double purpose of discouraging the incompetent and poorly equipped from entering the profession of law, and of encouraging the competent and well equipped by strengthening the desires of such to enter the profession, and by holding out to such the promise of ultimate success in the profession.
PLAN No. 1184. ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE, AND REPAIR OCCUPATIONS
Acknowledgment
This monograph was prepared by Terrell Croft and L. A. Emerson, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
Demand for electrical men is increasing constantly, and a returned soldier, whatever his disabilities and whether or not he has had previous experience, will be able in nearly every case to find some electrical job which will be interesting to him and at which he can make good wages.
To describe occupational possibilities in different lines of electrical work, the Federal Board has issued several monographs, of which this is one. If you desire to follow an electrical vocation, and do not find discussed in this monograph the specific occupation in which you are interested, obtain from a representative of the Federal Board one of the other publications dealing with electrical employments.
Electrical construction, repair, and maintenance occupations discussed in this bulletin cover the following related activities:
Electrical contracting and repairing.
Plant and factory electrical maintenance.
Electrical inspection.
Work in storage battery service stations.
Electrical automobile work.
Vocational opportunities in each of these fields are described in some detail on the following pages.
PLAN No. 1185. ELECTRICAL CONTRACTING AND REPAIRING
A man or a company engaged in electrical contracting and repairing installs wiring, generators, motors, and other electrical equipment in buildings. Some concerns install power plants complete. The organization may also include a repair shop wherein are rehabilitated motors, generators, and similar devices. Frequently, such companies have a retail store where energy-consuming devices, such as fan motors, sad irons, electric heaters, incandescent lamps, and other similar articles are retailed to the public. This merchandising feature is one of great importance because it affords a possibility of considerable additional income. The organization which formerly called itself the “National Electrical Contractors’ Association” has now adopted the name “National Association of Electrical Contractors and Dealers.” Some firms do electrical construction only, others electrical repairing only, and still others merchandising only. Or one may combine in its business any two or all three of these activities.
Often a contracting concern is a large company which does business in several cities. Again, it may be a small corporation operating locally. Or it may be an individually owned business employing only a few men.
The several vocational groups which may be distinguished in the contracting and repairing business include (a) owners, (b) inside wiremen, (c) estimators, (d) salesmen, (e) general repairmen, and (f) armature winders.
PLAN No. 1186. OWNERS
An owner of an electrical contracting business is usually a man who has worked himself up from a position as wireman or salesman. For success, however, it is not sufficient that the man be merely a good mechanic. Yearly, hundreds of men set up for themselves in the electrical contracting business and, while some succeed many fail, principally because they are not good business men. If a small contracting business is to prosper, the owner should have a good working knowledge not alone of electrical construction, but also of bookkeeping and selling. Pluck, industry, and honesty are prime essentials.
Not all owners earn large incomes. Some, in fact, earn little if any more than a journeyman wireman, who works for wages of from $60 to $125 per month. For a returned soldier who has had electrical-construction experience, and who possesses the requisite qualifications the field is promising. It requires some capital at the start, and the first years will practically always be lean ones. A man who is entering or who is serving in the electrical contracting field as a workman may look forward, if he has the proper capacity, to some day owning a business of his own. If he has this aspiration, he should become interested in bookkeeping, salesmanship, advertising, and in the technical aspects of the business, such as electrical machinery installation and wiring.
PLAN No. 1187. DEMAND FOR INSTALLATION OF WIRING
Wiring for electricity requires for its installation the services of many skilled men. In cities and towns where electric-company service is available, practically every house which is erected is wired. Out in the country, also, many farm buildings are now being wired. Furthermore, while it was common practice a few years ago to arrange for only one light or outlet in each room, the present tendency is to provide for several. All of this is creating a demand for more wire men.
PLAN No. 1188. SIGNAL WIRING
In wiring for electric doorbells, fire and burglar alarms, and other so-called signaling circuits dry cells are ordinarily used to provide the voltage. With this low pressure the fire risk is almost negligible. While the signal wiring in a large factory or institution may be complicated, in smaller buildings or residences it offers few difficult problems. To install signal wire economically and properly, however, requires some skill and experience.
PLAN No. 1189. LIGHT AND POWER WIRING
Installation of light and power wiring is more skilled work. On these circuits the electric pressure is always relatively high—110 volts or above—and there is the ever present danger to be guarded against of fire caused by short-circuiting. Not only may improperly installed wiring involve great fire hazard, but it may involve life hazard also. To minimize these dangers, codes of rules indicating the proper and safe methods of installing wiring and electrical equipment have been formulated. The National Board of Fire Underwriters has prepared and revises periodically such a compilation of rules, called the “National Electrical Code.” This, or some modification of it, is in force in practically all communities. These rules specify the conditions under which wiring of certain types may be used and indicate rigid requirements for the protection of circuits and the installation of electrical machinery.
Methods of wiring.—The several methods of wiring include the following: (a) open wiring; (b) knob and tube wiring; (c) rigid conduit wiring; (d) flexible conduit wiring; and (e) molding wiring.
Open wiring was the earliest form. It is the lowest in first cost and is, if properly installed, safe. The insulated conductors are supported along the surfaces of the walls and ceilings on porcelain knobs or cleats. In many factory buildings, particularly in those of the wooden mill type construction, much open wiring is used. For this service it is economical and quite satisfactory.
The knob and tube method provides a concealed installation, but is more expensive than the open type, and is applicable only in frame buildings. The wiring is placed while the structure is under construction. Where the conductors are carried along the sides of joists or other timbers, they are supported on porcelain knobs. Where they pass through studs or other wooden members the holes are bushed with porcelain tubes.
The principal tools used in both knob and tube and in open wiring are the screw driver, brace and bit, knife, saw, soldering iron, and blow torch.
PLAN No. 1190. MOLDING WIRING
In molding wiring conductors are held in a flat wooden or metal molding screwed to the wall or ceiling surface. Wooden molding, however, is not now commonly used, and in many cities its use is prohibited. The metal molding which is superseding the older nonmetallic molding is small, unobtrusive, and readily installed. It is used principally for extensions to existing wiring installations. By its use the cutting of holes and channels in walls and ceilings, which is necessary for the installation of concealed wiring, is eliminated.
PLAN No. 1191. STEEL CONDUIT WIRING
This is the most expensive, but the safest and best method. In fireproof buildings it is used exclusively, and in some communities wiring of other types is prohibited. Many frame buildings are now being wired with metal conduit, either of the rigid or the flexible type. Rigid conduit is merely wrought iron or steel pipe of the usual trade dimensions, which has been specially treated to prevent its corrosion and to render its interior smooth. Flexible steel conduit resembles metal hose in construction. Metal conduit is installed while the building is under construction, and subsequently rubber-insulated conductors are pulled into it. Usually the conduit is concealed within floors and walls, but it may be supported on surfaces. In concrete construction buildings the conduit is embedded in the concrete, being placed in the forms before the concrete is poured. At outlets where the conductors must be carried from the conduit system to feed lights and switches, steel or cast-iron outlet boxes are connected to the tubes. Pipe tools, such as dies, reamers, hack saws, drills, and bending “hickeys” are used in working conduit.
PLAN No. 1192. WIRING AS AN OCCUPATION
Wiring work is interesting and diversified. Some wiremen in the cities specialize on one type of work. For example, certain journeymen may ordinarily do nothing but conduit work day in and day out, while others may do all sorts of installing. Some men specialize on power wiring for motors, generators, switchboards, and similar equipment.
Usually a wireman must rely on his own experience and judgment for the detailed layout of the wiring installation. The architect’s plans generally indicate merely the locations for the different lights, switches, motors, and other devices. The wireman must then plan his circuits so that these devices may be served with the minimum expenditure of time and material.
Wiring of finished buildings, that is to say of the structures which were not wired at the time they were built, is almost a specialty in itself. Much of this work is done, because the electric utility companies expend considerable effort in their endeavor to see to it that all buildings, old and new, are wired, so that they may become possible customers. In wiring finished buildings much ingenuity may be exercised by the wireman in routing of conductors through the structure so as to insure the least removal of flooring and cutting of walls.
Qualifications of wiremen.—Requirements for wiring are determined to a large extent by the special line or lines of the activity taken up. While some wiring work requires little physical exertion, often considerable lifting and pulling is necessary. The necessary boring, sawing, and bending all require strength and endurance. Also it may be necessary to climb from floor to floor of buildings under construction. Some of the jobs may be in heated inclosed buildings, but the bulk of it is in structures under construction which are open to the weather.
As to technical qualifications, a good wireman should be able to read the architects’ blue prints, which specify the panel box and outlet locations, and he should be able to route his conductors properly. This requires that he have some general knowledge of electrical circuits, and be quite familiar with wiring methods and wiring code requirements. Often the wireman must order his own material for a job. Hence, he should be able to select and specify this intelligently. It follows that there is little opportunity in cities for a person who has had no previous experience or wiring training to immediately assume the duties of a journeyman wireman. But each wireman usually has working with him a helper. A helper can start with little or no previous experience, and work up. As in practically all other vocations, some theoretical and practical training will be of great value, and such training a prospective wireman can obtain at a trade school.
Wages of wiremen.—Compensation varies in different communities and with the skill of the workman. In practically all cities wiremen are unionized, but not usually in the smaller towns. An eight-hour day with time and a half for overtime prevails. In the cities the rate per day for a journeyman wireman will vary from $4.80 to $6.40, and in the smaller towns from $3.60 to $4.80. In cities a helper will receive from $2.80 to $4, and in the smaller towns from $2 to $4.40.
PLAN No. 1193. ESTIMATORS
Estimators in electrical contractors’ organizations compile estimates of the labor and material required and the cost thereof, for each job on which a bid is to be submitted by the contractor. On the basis of this cost of time and material the estimator determines the price which is quoted to the prospective purchaser. Most successful estimators are men who have worked at the wiring trade and thereby appreciate how much work can be accomplished under given conditions in a given time. Cost of material can readily be determined with accuracy, but to estimate closely the cost of labor—the time that will be consumed in putting in the job—requires experience and judgment. A returned soldier who has had previous electrical construction experience but whose physical qualifications are such that he can no longer do heavy work, should be able to qualify ultimately as an estimator. It may be that before he actually accepts such a position, he should have some supplementary theoretical training in a trade school in drawing, mathematics, and electrical theory. But after he has this training and some estimating practice he should, if his natural qualifications adapt him for the work, be able to do well at it. The work is mostly indoors, although the estimators sometimes visit sites of jobs under construction. The work is usually eight hours a day, and the salary may range from $100 to $250 per month. A competent estimator may make a great deal of money for his concern and an incompetent one can lose much more.
PLAN No. 1194. SALESMEN
A salesman for an electrical contracting business may be either an inside man or an outside man, or combine inside and outside duties. An inside or store salesman will sell the various electrical appliances and devices which the contractor may stock. Such may include electric fans, electric-washing machines, small motors, irons, heaters, incandescent lamps, and similar devices and material. He should be well informed as to the uses and applications of this equipment, and he should also be competent to advise prospective customers about any wiring and the cost thereof, which may be required for the installation of the equipment. Outside salesmen are frequently assigned territories or districts which they are expected to cover and from which they obtain orders for about the same equipment and services as do the inside men. Their work is somewhat similar to that of an electric-company solicitor.
This sales work offers attractive possibilities for returned soldiers who have had some previous electrical experience, and whose physical disabilities are such that they can no longer do heavy work. While technical knowledge is an extremely valuable asset to a salesman, the essential qualification of a man who is selling anything is that he have the “selling instinct.” He should like to meet people of all sorts, and feel at ease when talking to them. For a man who has the qualifications, the opportunities for him in sales work are probably better than those in any other line. If a man can get around and see and talk to people, hear what they have to say, and write, he should be able to qualify physically for this work. Many salesmen earn very moderate salaries, but others command very high ones. The compensation depends very largely on the man. Often it is on a salary and commission basis. In this selling work, a man may expect to earn from $70 to $150 per month, or even more, depending upon his abilities and application. Sometimes a man may combine the duties of salesman and estimator.
PLAN No. 1195. GENERAL REPAIRMEN
General repairmen of a contracting company must be versatile. They are the “trouble shooters” for the company, and may be called upon to locate trouble in, and to repair burned-out motors, worn or damaged controllers, and many different sorts in interior electrical installations. They should be able to judge whether a machine needs a new bearing, or rewinding, or what. Frequently the repairs must be made to the equipment in the building where it is installed, since it may not be practical to remove it to the shop. A repairman may also have advantageously some knowledge of armature winding, although his duties ordinarily are to handle only the troubles which can be corrected with the expenditure of comparatively little time. The repairman’s most necessary qualification is the ability to locate a trouble quickly, and either remedy it at once, or recommend authoritatively such action as is necessary for permanent repair. This requires resourcefulness and a good understanding of the operating characteristics of electrical machines and devices of all sorts. Jobs involving the rewinding of machine are generally sent to the shop and handled by an armature winder, as described in the following paragraph. A general repairman may expect compensation ranging from $80 to $125 per month. The day is usually eight hours. Some time is spent outside traveling from job to job, and the remainder inside.
PLAN No. 1196. ARMATURE WINDERS
Armature winders are now employed by many of the electrical contracting companies in their repair departments. Some concerns make a specialty of and do no other work except the winding and rewinding of electrical machines. To become a competent armature winder, a man must have a great deal of experience, which can be acquired only in the shop. However, a trade school course in this vocation will be of great assistance, and should increase materially the rate of a man’s advance and his ultimate earning capacity. It is impossible for one to do armature winding intelligently without some knowledge of electrical theory. Without it he may be able to work along like a machine, but unless he possesses some of this theoretical information he will not know why he is doing certain things certain ways and will never be competent to act independently.
An individual can start as an armature winder’s helper at making and taping coils with little or no previous experience, and can from this position gradually acquire an extended working knowledge of armature winding.
In an electrical repair shop, the armature winder must work on machines of many different types. It is often necessary for him to do lifting, and he must have full use of his fingers. He may be compelled to stand at his work for long periods. A lack of hearing is not a material detriment, and the blind have been taught to do this work successfully. Men with certain minor disablements can qualify for this service. The work is almost wholly indoors, although it may occasionally be necessary to work on a machine in a building which is under construction and open to the weather. An eight-hour day prevails. In cities the vocation is largely unionized. An armature winder helper or apprentice will receive from 20 to 40 cents per hour; a journeyman, from 60 to 75 cents per hour; and a superintendent, from $150 to $250 per month. Expert, rapid armature winders for coal, steel, and similar companies often receive as much as $200 a month. Time and a half is paid for overtime. Usually the jobs in these repair shops are steady, the men being retained in slack times at routine work of some sort or other. A competent electrical machine repair personnel is difficult to assemble, and when a repair shop has acquired one, it takes precautions to provide the men with steady work so that they will not leave.
PLAN No. 1197. PLANT AND FACTORY ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
Nearly all factories of any consequence now employ electrical power distribution. Electrical energy is produced economically in a centrally located generating station and is distributed by the wiring throughout the plant wherever power is required. In the many plants in this country great numbers of electric motors drive the machines. Thousands of incandescent lamps are utilized for lighting. Also electrical energy may be used for electroplating, galvanizing, welding, heating, and other services. For the installation and upkeep of all this equipment, thousands of electrical maintenance men are required. The work of an electrician in a paper mill may, in detail, be quite different from that required of one in an office building or in a printing establishment. Yet each of these is an electrical maintenance man.
Duties of maintenance men.—These are extremely diversified. A good maintenance man must be a broad-gauge fellow having on tap a lot of electrical experience and information. The repair of minor electrical troubles or motors and other equipment are always under his charge. Much of the work consists of “trouble shooting,” that is of locating and correcting electrical difficulties of various sorts. Fuses blown due to sudden overload may have to be replaced. Loose connections may have to be tightened. Possibly a machine may for no apparent cause refuse to start. Then the electrician must at once locate the trouble and repair it, or arrange for the installation of a substitute machine while the faulty one is sent to the shop. Often also he may be called upon to install new wiring and equipment. In some plants the electrical maintenance department may also rewind armatures.
PLAN No. 1198. QUALIFICATIONS OF PLANT AND MAINTENANCE ELECTRICIANS
Maintenance work involves not alone a good understanding of electrical practice but also, for the first-class man, a knowledge of the industry and its manufacturing processes. The electrician should be sufficiently familiar with the machinery in the plant to determine quickly whether a trouble lies in the motor or in the driven machine. In many plants, where continuous process production prevails, those of the steel industry for example, time is an extremely important factor. The shut-down of one machine may render idle several hundred men and clog the operation of the entire factory. Efficiency naturally increases with experience in the given plant.
An electrician who has the ability to replace in service, in minimum time, an inoperative machine should and does receive high compensation. A fair degree of physical ability is required for this work, because the electrician may in the course of his regular duties have to do many different kinds of jobs. Sometimes the removal of a motor requires lifting. The installation of heavy conductors requires pulling. On the other hand, much of the work, such as the replacing of fuses or the installation of electric light wiring, necessitates but little physical exertion.
While many plant electricians have acquired all they know solely through experience, theoretical training will enable a man to progress quickly and to increase his earning capacity. The work is largely indoors, although some of it is outside in the plant yards and in open buildings. In many of the plants an eight-hour day prevails but there are still some where the men work 9 or 10 or even 12 hours on the night shift. The work is very steady. If the plant shuts down the electricians are ordinarily employed during the nonoperating period on such reconstruction and maintenance as can not be effected conveniently while the plant is running.
PLAN No. 1199. PROMOTION
In some of the large steel and other manufacturing plants, electricians who have risen to the position of chief electrician earn as much as $300 or more monthly. Such a job involves ability to handle successfully many electricians, and to “keep the plant going” at minimum cost. Frequently men start in a plant as wireman’s helpers or as motor tenders, for which little knowledge or experience is necessary. As the beginner gradually becomes familiar with the equipment and the processes of the industry he may be advanced to more responsible and remunerative work. A man commencing factory electrical maintenance work as a motor tender or wireman’s helper may expect to earn from $50 to $80 per month. An experienced plant trouble man may command from $80 to $175 or more per month.
PLAN No. 1200. ELECTRICAL INSPECTION
Nearly all electrical installations are now subject to inspection. Most fire-insurance policies provide that electrical work in the insured building must be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code, and insurance may be refused on any building not wired in accordance with the code. Sometimes in the country districts, installations are not inspected, but in the cities and in most industrial plants periodical inspections are made. Many cities have wiring codes of their own, which are enforced by ordinance and which are based on and are in general similar to the National Electrical Code.
To insure that the code rules are observed it is in most cities required that the wiring, fixtures, motors, and other electrical equipment be inspected by a municipal or an insurance inspector before electric service is given. Large industrial plants located outside the cities are examined by insurance inspectors.
Duties of inspectors.—The duties of the inspector are to scrutinize work in detail and, if it is properly installed, to approve it and recommend that a certificate of inspection therefor be issued. If it is not in accordance with the code, he suggests the necessary alterations. Upon the issuance of an inspection certificate, the local electric company is authorized to give service.
To handle his duties effectively, an inspector should have an extensive knowledge of electrical construction. Furthermore, he must be familiar with the wiring rules specified by local ordinance or by the code. The rules relate to signal systems, lighting circuits, power wiring, installation of motors and generators, high-tension machinery, transformers, switchboards, substations, and the like. In every municipal underwriters’ inspection organization, it is often necessary to make rulings relating to features of electrical work which are encountered infrequently and which are, therefore, not covered in detail in the regular printed rules. The inspector must also be familiar with these. In other words, he must know after inspecting a job whether or not it has been installed in accordance with the “Code” under which he is working. Ordinarily this knowledge can be obtained satisfactorily only through extended experience in electrical construction.
Opportunities for disabled men.—Possibilities offered by electrical inspection for returned soldiers are very promising. The inspector spends probably half of his time out of doors and half indoors in finished buildings. In the larger cities, inspectors are usually provided with motor cars so that they can move quickly from job to job. Little physical exertion is required, and there is no lifting or pulling. But an inspector should be able to climb around buildings under construction, and into attics. Both hands are required for testing, but one arm may be artificial. A returned soldier who has had previous electrical-construction experience, but who because of some physical disability can not follow his old vocation, should find electrical inspection a means of earning a good livelihood at interesting work.
The work is normally eight hours per day, with Saturday afternoons off but, since the men are usually paid monthly salaries, sometimes they will do little work on one day and have to spend overtime on the next. Theoretical training in a school which teaches electric wiring is very desirable for a man who has not made a study of the code requirements. The salary for an inspector will range from $100 to $175 per month. A chief inspector to whom several men report may receive from $150 to $250 per month and possibly more. In some cities the wiring inspectors must be members of the wireman’s union and receive the prevailing rate of pay for wiremen.