As late as 1722, there was a Papist conspiracy to take the Tower of London and the King, and make a Catholic king. This resulted in the imprisonment of the conspirators and a new statute: Persons not taking the oath of allegiance and above oath that they were not Papist shall register their lands and yearly rents and pay double the land tax and 100,000 pounds. After payment, they are discharged from forfeiting 2/3 of their lands' rents for one year.
Papists enlisting in the army are liable to corporal punishment, but not death, as determined by a court martial.
Any mayor, bailiff, or other magistrate who is present at any meeting for public worship other than the Church of England will lose office and is barred from any public office or employment.
Jews may not refuse suitable maintenance to their children who
are Christian to pressure them to convert back to Judaism.
Black slaves were common for a time in London. This was a
result of the voluminous triangle trade of manufactured goods from
England, slaves from West Africa, and sugar and tobacco from the West
Indies. Slavery was largely abolished by judicial decision of Chief
Justice Mansfield in 1772.
If a sheriff does not answer for money collected for the Exchequer, he shall forfeit treble damages to the aggrieved person, double the sum missing to the aggrieved person, 100 pounds to the king, and 100 pounds to the party who sues. If a sheriff take a fee for levying or collecting money due to the king (except 4d. for an acquittance) or take a sum for not levying money due, he is guilty of extortion, injustice, and oppression and shall forfeit treble damages and costs to the aggrieved person, and double the sum extorted to the aggrieved person. A sheriff may not levy more than 12d. for every 20s. of yearly income of any manor for up to 100 pounds of income, and 6d. for value over 100 pounds.
No one may cut pine trees that are fit for masts of ship in New England without license by the Queen or else forfeit 100 pounds. Later, pine trees on private property were exempted.
Citizens of Great Britain may sue colonial debtors by oath before British magistrates and a debtor's colonial lands and houses and negroes may be used to satisfy his debts.
Anyone pretending to act under a charter and taking subscriptions in Great Britain or the colonies must forfeit treble damages.
No hats, including beaver hats, may be exported from any colony even to another colony because this has hurt British hat manufacture. The penalty is 500 pounds. No one in the colonies except present hatmakers who are householders and journeymen may make hats unless they serve a seven year apprenticeship. No hatmaker in the colonies may have more than two apprentices at once.
Whaling ships near Greenland were prohibited from returning until their hulls were full. Vessels built or fitted out in America may engage in whaling.
Pig iron from the colonies may be imported free, but there may be no mill for slitting or rolling iron and no plateing-forge or other engine to work with a tilt hammer and no furnace for making steel erected or used in the colonies or else forfeit 200 pounds.
No paper bills of credit may be used in New England because such have depreciated.
William Blackstone lectured on law at Oxford University in 1753. As a result, the first professorship of English law was established. His lectures were published in 1769 as the "Commentaries on the Laws of England". They greatly influenced the American colonists and were the basis of legal education in England and America for years. They were comprehensive and covered real property, crime and punishment, court procedure, contract, corporations, and commercial law. He wrote "The Great Charter and Charter of the Forest" in 1759.
Judicial Procedure
There were twelve common law justices of the Court of the King's Bench, Court of Common Pleas, and Court of the Exchequer. The Chief Justices of all of these courts were paid partly from fees paid to the court. The other Justices of these courts were paid completely by salary, which in 1759 was well over 500 pounds per year. These justices were to continue in office even after a king died and could be removed only for good cause upon the address of both houses of Parliament. The officers of these courts were attorneys. There was one justice at Doctors' Commons. The two chancery justices (since Edward I) were the Lord Chancellor and the Master of the Rolls. The salary of the eleven masters of the court of chancery in 1765 was 400 pounds per year. The officers of this court were solicitors.
Appeals from the Exchequer could be made to a court of the King's Bench and Common Pleas combined. Appeals from Common Pleas could be made to the King's Bench. Decisions of the King's Bench and other common law courts could be appealed to Parliament's House of Lords.
The common law courts rode circuit twice a year in five circuits and once a year in the north circuit. So an accused person could spend up to a year in gaol waiting for trial. Few prisoners were granted bail. In each common law court, the law justices in banc would hear demurrers [contentions that the other party was wrong in the law]. No one with an interest in a suit, including the plaintiff and the defendant, could give evidence. There was no power to amend pleadings, so misspelling of the defendant's name, for instance, could result in dismissal of the suit. In 1730, the pleadings and indictments ceased to be in Latin.
In the common law courts, trespass in ejectment served the purposes of most of the actions involving land. Assumpsit covered the whole province of debt, for which compurgation still existed, and much more. Trover more than covered the old province of detinue, for which compurgation still existed. Trespass still served for all cases in which the defendant had been guilty of directly applying force to the plaintiff's body, goods or chattels. Trespass on the case covered miscellaneous torts. Replevin was still used. Covenant remained in use for the enforcement of promises under seal.
Account gradually came under the equity jurisdiction of Chancery. Common law writs of dower are largely superseded by the relief given to the doweress in the courts of equity, where new and valuable rights were given to her and to her personal representatives against the heir and his representatives. The actions of indebitatus assumpsit is being extended to actions upon quasi-contract, in which the element of contract is not required e.g. quantum meruit, where a contract is implied from the facts of the case. The deodand doctrine is still in force.
In Chancery, a plaintiff filed a complaint and interrogatories prepared by counsel. Only in Chancery could there be discovery, such as interrogatories [written questions]. Court officials asked the questions of witnesses without the presence of the parties or their lawyers. Officials wrote down the answers in their own terms. So there was no cross-examination possible. Most decrees took many years to be made.
The ordinary administrative court of first instance is that of one or two Justices of the Peace who issued orders in matters of public safety, public order, public morals, health, the poor, highways, water, fields, forests, fisheries, trade, building, fire, begging, and vagrancy. They examined suspicious persons and issued warrants for the removal of any person likely to become a public charge. The Justice of the Peace also regulated wages, servants, apprentices, and day laborers. In his judicial capacity, he tried all crimes and felonies except treason, though in practice death penalty cases were transferred to the assize justices. The Justices of the Peace of a hundred hold special sessions such as for appointment of parochial officers, highway disputes, and the grant of wine, beer, and spirit licenses. The appointment of overseers of the poor, authorization of parish rates, and reading of the Riot Act to mobs to disperse them, required more than one of the Justices of the Peace of the hundred to participate. All the Justices of the Peace of the county met four times a year at Quarter Sessions to hear appeals from penal sentences, to determine the county rate of tax, to appoint treasurers of the county and governors of the county prison and house of correction, to issue regulations on prices of provisions and on wages, to settle fees of the county officials, to grant licenses for powder-mills and other industries, to hear nuisance complaints such as those against parishes failing to keep their roads in repair, to make regulations for the holding of markets, to hear complaints concerning local government, and to register dissenting chapels. In more and more matters specified by statute, the Quarter Sessions heard appeals from the orders of individual Justices of the Peace instead of common law courts hearing them by writ of certiorari. The writ of certiorari allowed administrative decisions to be reviewed by the common law courts for compliance with law, competency of the court, and interpretation of the administrative law. The writ of habeas corpus appealed administrative decisions to imprison not only after arrest for criminal proceedings, but any coercive measure for enforcing an administrative order. The writ of mandamus was available for enforcing the injunctions of administrative law against towns, corporations, and all other authorities and private persons, where the ordinary punishments were insufficient. Justices of the Peace in rural areas were squires and in towns aldermen.
In 1747, Justices of the Peace were authorized to decide issues between masters and mistresses and their employees who were hired for at least one year. If a servant misbehaved, they could authorize reduction of wage, discharge, and hard labor at a house of Correction up to one month. If a servant was not paid, he could authorize payment of wages up to 10 pounds for an agricultural servant, and up to 5 pounds for an artificer, handicraftsman, miner, collier, keelman, pitman, glassman, potter, or ordinary laborer. Later, tinners and miners were added to the last category. In 1758, employees of less than a year were included.
In 1775, Justices of the Peace were authorized to administer any oath for the purpose of levying penalties.
To be a Justice of the Peace, one must have income of 100 pounds a year from a freehold, copyhold, or customary estate that is for life or for a term of at least 21 years, or be entitled to a reversion of lands leased for 1 or 2 or 3 lives, or for any term of years determinable on the death of 1 or 2 or 3 lives. Excepted were peers, justices, and heads of colleges or vice chancellors at the universities. The Justices of the Peace were selected by the superintending Sheriffs and Lords Lieutenant, the latter of whom were usually peer with a ministers' office or a high court official. No attorney or solicitor or proctor could be a Justice of the Peace unless the locality had Justices of the Peace by charter.
No one may practice as an attorney in the courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas, or Exchequer until he has been examined by a judge of such court on his fitness and qualifications and has taken the oath to honestly demean himself and practice according to his best knowledge and ability. The same applies to a solicitor in the equity courts. This shall not exclude persons who have been bound to an attorney or solicitor for four years. Attorneys and solicitors, with consent of an attorney of another court, may participate in proceedings of such other court. No attorney may have more than two clerks bound to him at one time. Attorneys may be admitted as solicitors and vice-versa.
The qualification for jury service is having land with an income over rents of at least 20 pounds, with leases for 500 years or more, or 99 years, or any term determinable on one or more lives. Being a freeholder is not necessary. In London, the qualification is being a householder and having lands to the value of 100 pounds. No sheriff may excuse a qualified person from jury service for money or other reward. Selection of jurors for each case is to be done by some impartial person pulling their names from a box. Later, persons refusing jury service could be fined.
In 1763, the homes of John Wilkes and others were searched for a seditious and treasonous published paper and all related papers because they had been rumored to have some relationship to the conception, writing, publication, or distribution of the paper. Wilkes had such papers and was convicted of libel. He countersued for damages due to criminal trespass. The court held that general search warrants were subversive of the liberty of the subject of the search in violation of the British Constitution, declared the statute void, and found for Wilkes. The Court of Common Pleas agreed on appeal and put the burden of proof on the persons searching to justify the search warrant. His decision gave support to William Pitt's assertion that "every man's home is his castle".
For actions under 10 pounds in a superior court and actions under 40s. in an inferior court, the offender shall be served with process to appear in court rather than being arrested. For money at issue, an affidavit shall be taken. No more money may be taken for bail than the amount at controversy. This is to prevent frivolous and vexatious arrests. Perjurers, forgers, those involved in barratry or suborning perjury, and pretenders practicing as attorneys or solicitors in the courts of law or equity shall be transported for seven years to the American colonies. Unqualified people acting as attorneys or solicitors in the county court shall forfeit 20 pounds.
Writs of error at variance from the original record or otherwise defective may be amended to correct the defect by the court where such writ is returnable. No judgment is to be reversed for any defect in any bill or writ, excepting an appeal of felony or murder, or misdemeanor. This is to prevent delays of justice. Justices of the Peace may correct defects of form on appeals to them.
Plaintiffs neglecting to go to trial after an issue has been
joined may be nonsuited.
Poor persons may be paid up to 6d. to give evidence against
felons.
Pirates may not be tried again for the same crime or for a certain crime and high treason. When the marine force was raised, the marines were also given protection from double jeopardy.
A request for Certiorari for removal of convictions, judgments, orders made by Justices of the Peace must be made within six months and after notice to the Justice of the Peace who may argue cause against granting certiorari.
Mercantile law was developed by the common law courts, especially the King's Bench.
The king was to appoint the marshal of the King's Bench. The marshal was to select his inferior officers to hold office as long as they "behave themselves well within". These offices had been sold by James I to a certain person, his heirs, and assigns. The marshal was to keep the prison of this court in good repair from his fees and profits of office.
The office of sheriff was now an accessory department of the common law courts for summons, executions, summoning the jury, and carrying out the sentence of the law.
Summons for excise offenses may be left at a person's abode,
workhouse, or shop as well as on his person.
The coroner's office now investigated unusual deaths with a
jury from the neighborhood elected by county freeholders.
The last beheading was of a Scottish lord in 1747; he had been involved in an attempt to restore the Stuarts to the throne. So many people came that some overcrowded bleachers fell down and crushed about 20 spectators. Henceforth, every sentence of death was by hanging, even for peers.
In 1772, the process of pressing a man to death, if he refused to plead to an indictment was abolished. Instead, persons accused or indicted, in Great Britain or America, of felony or piracy who stand mute shall be convicted of such charge. Property of a felon was still forfeited to the crown.
From 1749 on were established special procedures for speedy decisions in local courts in some areas for debts or damages under 40s. and imprisonment for such was limited for up to three months. Otherwise, sentences were longer, and debts grew during the time in prison. When prisons were overcrowded, Parliament let the inmates out if they gave up their possessions. They could go to Georgia.
There were felons' prisons and debtors' prisons. Sometimes they were one and the same. There was much fighting among inmates. The inmates slept on hay if lucky. There were no washing facilities and little light. Counties or friends paid for their bread. They were also sold beer, which made them drunk and riotous. The sale of beer was a recognized and legitimate source of profit to the keeper. This was remedied by statute of 1760 that no sheriff or other officer may take an arrested person to a tavern or other public house or charge him for any wine, beer, ale, victuals, tobacco or other liquor without his consent and shall allow prisoners to be brought beer, ale, victuals, bedding, and linen as the prisoner sees fit. Sheriffs often kept people imprisoned unless and until they paid all their fees due to the sheriff. In 1772 was founded the Society for the Discharge and Relief of Persons Imprisoned for Small Debts for those inmates unfortunate instead of fraudulent or extravagant. Legacies were often made to debtors. There was much Gaol Distemper fever with fatal consequences. When John Howard, a grocer who had inherited wealth, but poor health, became a sheriff, he visited many gaols. When he saw the squalid conditions there, he advocated hygienic practices. In 1774, Justices of the Peace were authorized to order walls and ceilings of gaols to be scraped and washed, ventilators for supplies of fresh air, a separate room for the sick prisoners, commodious bathing tubs, provision of clothes for prisoners, keeping of prisoners not below the ground, and apothecaries at a stated salary to attend and to report the state of health of prisoners.
In 1773, clergymen were employed in gaols to alleviate the distress of prisoners and to contribute to morality and religion. Also, no longer may any fees be taken by gaol keepers or sheriffs because persons not indicted or found not guilty have been kept in prison pending payment of such fees. Instead, the counties shall pay to gaol keepers up to 13s.4d. per prisoner so discharged.
Colonials acts which infringed upon the English common or statutory law, or were against the interests of other American colonies were submitted to the Privy Council, which allowed or disallowed them. Appeals from the colonial courts came to the Privy Council.
Judges in the colonies were appointed by royal governors and paid by colonial legislatures. They served at the pleasure of the king. Colonial courts included superior courts of judicature, courts of assize, general gaol delivery, general sessions of the peace, inferior court of common pleas, and commissions of Oyer and Terminer. There were also Justices of the Peace, marshals, provosts, and attorney generals. There were few cases of vagrancy, theft, or homicide. This may have been because the people were few and dependent on each other, and economic opportunities were great.
Benefit of clergy for certain crimes was available in the American colonies to all who could read and write. For instance, it could be used in trials for manslaughter.
Appendix: Sovereigns of England
Accession - - Name - - - - - - - - - Relation
871 - Alfred the Great 899 - Edward the Elder - - - - - - - son of Alfred 924 - AEthelstan - - - - - - - - - - son of Edward the Elder 939 - Edmund - - - - - - - - - - - - son of Edward the Elder 946 - Eadred - - - - - - - - - - - - son of Edward the Elder 955 - Eadwig - - - - - - - - - - - - son of Edmund 959 - Edgar - - - - - - - - - - - - son of Edmund 975 - Edward the Martyr - - - - - - son of Edgar 978 - AEthelred the Unready - - - - son of Edgar 1016 - Edmund Ironside - - - - - - - son of AEthelred the Unready 1016 - Canute 1035 - Harold I Harefoot - - - - - - son of Canute 1040 - Hardicanute - - - - - - - - - son of Canute 1042 - Edward the Confessor - - - - -son of Aethelred the Unready 1066 - Harold II 1066 - William I, the Conquerer 1087 - William II - - - - - - - - - -son of William I 1100 - Henry I (and Matilda) - - - - son of William I 1135 - Stephen 1154 - Henry II(and Eleanor) - grandson of Henry I 1189 - Richard I, the Lion-Hearted - son of Henry II 1199 - John - - - - - - - - - - - - son of Henry II 1216 - Henry III - - - - - - - - - - son of John 1272 - Edward I (and Eleanor) - - - son of Henry III 1307 - Edward II - - - - - - - - - - son of Edward I 1327 - Edward III - - - - - - - - - son of Edward II 1377 - Richard II - - - - - - - - - grandson of Edward III 1399 - Henry IV 1413 - Henry V - - - - - - - - - - - son of Henry IV 1422 - Henry VI - - - - - - - - - - son of Henry V 1461 - Edward IV 1483 - Edward V - - - - - - - - - - son of Edward IV 1483 - Richard III 1485 - Henry VII (and Elizabeth) 1509 - Henry VIII - - - - - - - - - son of Henry VII 1547 - Edward VI - - - - - - - - - - son of Henry VIII 1553 - Mary - - - - - - - - - - - - daughter of Henry VIII 1558 - Elizabeth I - - - - - - - - - daughter of Henry VIII 1603 - James I 1625 - Charles I - - - - - - - - - - - son of James I 1649 - Oliver Cromwell 1660 - Charles II - - - - - - - - - - -son of Charles I 1685 - James II - - - - - - - - - - - -son of Charles I 1689 - William and Mary 1694 - William III 1702 - Anne - - - - - - - - - - - granddaughter of James II 1714 - George I 1727 - George II - - - - - - - - - - - son of George I 1760 - George III - - - - - - - - - - son of George II
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Essays in Science, Albert Einstein, 1934 151. The Character of Physical Law, Richard Feynman, 1965 152. Dictionary of National Biography, George Smith, 1882 153. Elizabeth I: Collected Works, ed. Leah Marcus et al, 2000 154. The Crime of Galileo, Giorgio de Santillana, 1955 155. From Copernicus to Einstein, Hans Reichenbach, 1942 156. The Horizon Book of the Elizabethan World, Ed. Richard Ketchum, 1967 157. Tower of London, Christopher Hibbert, 1971 158. Tudor Royal Proclamations, Ed. P.L. Hughes & J.F. Larkin, 1964 159. Selected Historical essays of F.W.Maitland, Ed. Helen Cam, 1957 160. Lloyd's of London, Raymond Flower & Michael Jones, 1974 161. Weather, Philip Thompson etc., 1965 162. Constitutional History of England, William Stubbs, 1891 163. Hillforts of England and Wales, James Dyer, 1981 164. The Last Two Million Years, Reader's Digest Association, 1973 165. London: The Civic Spirit, Robert Goldston, 1969 166. Domestic Life in England, Norah Lofts, 1976 167. Descartes, Tom Sorell, 1987 168. Life in the English Country House, Mark Girouard, 1978 169. Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things, Charles Panati,1987 170. God's Peace and King's Peace: The Laws of Edward the Confessor, Bruce O'Brien, 1999 171. The Bill of Rights, Irving Brant, 1965 172. Issac Newton, Adventurer in Thought; A. Rupert Hall, 1992 173. The Life of Issac Newton, Richard S. Westfall, -1993 174. A History of the Circle, Ernest Zebrowski, 1999 175. The World of Water, J. Gordon Cook, 1957 176. The Western Intellectual Tradition, J. Bronowski & Mazlish, 1960 177. Human Accomplishment, Charles Murray, 2003 178. Magic, Myth and Medicine, D.T.Atkinson, M.D., 1956 179. Scientists Who Changed the World, Lynn and Gray Poole, 1960 180. The New Treasury of Science, Ed. Harlow Shapley, etc., 1965 181. Food in History, Reay Tannahill, 1973 182. Home, A Short History of an Idea, Witold Rybczynski, 1986 183. English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century, George C. Homans, 1941 184. English Lawsuits from William I to Richard I, Selden Society, 1990 185. The Notebook of Sir John Port, Selden Society 186. Spellman's Reports, Selden Society 187. The Mediaeval Church, Marshall Baldwin, 1953 188. The Court of Common Pleas in Fifteenth Century England, Margaret Hastings, 1947 189. English Courts of Law, Hanbury and Yardley, 1979 190. The Jury, W. R. Cornish, 1968 191. Women in Medieval Society, Susan Stuart, 1976 192. The King and his Courts - John and Henry III, Ralph Turner, 1968 193. Oxford History of the Laws of England. Vol 1, R. H. Helmholz, 2004 194. Leges Henrici Primi, L.J. Downer, 1972 195. Black's Law Dictionary, Henry Black, 1968 196. Webster's Dictionary, Noah Webster, 1983 197. An Introduction to Early English Law, Bill Griffiths, 1995 198. Pelican History of England: 1) Roman Britain, I.A. Richmond, 1955 2) The Beginnings of English Society, Dorothy Whitelock, 1952 3) English Society in the Early Middle Ages, Doris Stenton, 1951 4) England in the Late Middle Ages, A.R. Myers, 1952 5) Tudor England, S.T. Bindoff, 1950 6) England in the Seventeenth Century, Maurice Ashley, 1952
- - - - - - - - - - - - -THE END
- - - - - - - - - - - - - INDEX
abbey; abbot, abbess; abduction; accessory; account; administrator; admiralty; adultery; adverse possession; adulterated; advowson; AEthelbert; AEthelred; affidavit; agreement; agriculture; Augustine. St.; aids; alderman; ale; alehouses; Alfred; alienate; aliens; allegiance; alms; amerce; America; Anabaptist; ancient; Anglo-Saxons; Anglo-Saxon Chronicles; annulment; apothecaries; apparel laws; appeal; appellate; apprentices; appurtance; archbishop; architect; Aristotle; Arkwright, Richard; arraign; arson; Arthur; Articles of Religion; artificer; artisan; assault; assay; assign; assize; assizes; assumpsit; astrology; at pleasure; atheism; attainder; attaint; attorneys; babies; bachelor; Bachelor of Arts; back-berend; Bacon, Francis; Bacon, Roger; bacteriology; bail; bailiff; baker; ballads; Bank of England; bankruptcy; Baptist; bar; barber; barber-surgeon; bargain and sale; barons; baron court; barristers; bastard; bath; battery; beadle; beating; Becket; beer; beggar; benefit of clergy; benevolence; Beowulf; bequeath, bequest; Bible; bigamy; bill; bill of attainder; bill of exchange; Bill of Rights; billet; Birmingham; bishops; Black Death; Blackstone, William; blinding; blodwite; blood-letting; bocland; Book of Common Prayer; bordars; borough; Boston; bot; Boyle, Robert; Bracton, Henry de; brass; brawling; breach; breach of the peace; bread; Brewster; bribery; brick; bridge; bridgebot; Bristol; brokers; Bullock, case of; burgbot; burgess; burglary; burh; burial; burning; butcher; butler; Calais; Calvin; Cambridge University; canals; cannon; capitalism; carbon dioxide; carpenter; carriages; carucage; carver; castle; castle-guard; cathedral; Catholics; cattle; cavaliers; Cecil, William; censorship; ceorl; certiorari; challenge; champerty; chancellor; chancery; Chancery Court; charter; chattel; Chaucer, Geoffrey; chemistry; chevage; Chief Justice; Chief Justiciars; child; child abuse; children; childwyte; Christian; chivalry; Christmas; church; Church of England; church sanctuary; Cicero; circuit; citizen; city; civil; civil courts; civil war; claim; clans; class; clergy; clerics; cloth-maker; coaches; coal; coffee houses; coin; Coke, Edward; College of Physicians and Surgeons; colonies; commission; common land; common law; Commons, House of; Commonwealth; compurgation; compurgator; confession; Congregationalists; Conqueror; consideration; constable; constitution; contract; conventile; conveyance; conviction; cooper; Copernicus; copper; copyhold; copyrights; cordwainer; Coronation Charter; coroner; corporation; corruption of the blood; council; counterfeit; county; county courts; courtesy; Court of Common Pleas; Court of High Commission; Court of King's Bench; courtesy; court martial; covenant; coverture; Coventry; craft; craft guild; Cranmer, Thomas; creditor; crime; criminal; Cromwell, Oliver; Cromwell, Thomas; crown; cupbearer; curfew; currier; custody; customary tenant; customs; damages; danegeld; Danes; darrein presentment; daughter; death; death penalty; debt, debtors; deceased; decree; deed; deer; defamation; defendant; demesne; denizen; deodand; descendant; Descartes, Renee; desertion; detinue; devise; dispensary; disseisin; dissenter; distraint; distress; divorce; doctorate; dog; Doomsday Book; doublet; dower; dowery; Drake, Francis; drover; drunkenness; duel; during good behavior; duties; dwelling; dyers; earl; East India Company; Easter; ecclesiastic; Edith; education; Eleanor, wife of Edward I; Eleanor, wife of Henry II; election; electricity; Elizabeth, wife of Henry VII; embroiderer; enclosure; English; engrose; Episcopal Church; equity; equity court; Erasmus; escape from gaol; escheat, escheator; escuage; esquire; established church; estate; estate administration; estate tail; Euclid; Exchequer; excommunication; excise tax; executor; export; extent; eyre; factory; fair; father; fealty; fee; fee simple; fee tail; felony; feme covert; feme sole; feoff; Fermat, Pierre; feudal; feudal tenures; fihtwite; fine; fire; firdfare; fire-fighters; fishermen, fishmonger; flint; flogging; flymenfyrm; flying shuttle; folkmote; food riots; footmen; forced loans; forced marriage; forestall; Forest Charter; forestall; forestel; forests; forfeit; forgery; forms of action; fornication; fortifications; foster-lean; France; frank-almoin; Franklin, Benjamin; frankpledge; fraternity; fraud; freedom of speech; freehold, freeholder; freeman; freemason; freewoman; friar; frith guild; fuller; fustian; fyrd; fyrding; fyrdwite; gage; Galilei, Galileo; gambling; games; gaols; Gaol Distemper; Gawaine; gentleman; gentry; geology; Georgia; German, Christopher St., gift; Gilbert, William; guildhall; guilds; gin; Glanvill; glass; Glorious Revolution; gloves; God; godfather; gold; Goldsmiths; Good Parliament; goods; government; grain; grammar schools; grand assize; grand jury; Grand Tour; grants; grave; gravitation; Greek; Gresham, Thomas; grithbrice; guardian, guardianship; Guenevere; hair; hall; Halley, Edmond; hamsocne; hand-habbende; harboring; Harrington, James; Harvard College; health; heir; heresy; heriot; hidage; hide; High Commission Court; Hilda; hillforts; holidays, holydays; homage; homicide; Hooke, Robert; horse; horse racing; hospitals; house-breaking; house-holder; House of Commons; House of Lords; houses; houses of correction; hue and cry; humanism, humors; hundred rolls; husbreche; Huygens, Christian; hundred; hundred courts; hunt; husband; hustings court; hut; illegitimacy; illness; illuminators; impeach; import; imprisonment; incest; income tax; Independents; indenture; indictment; industry; infangthef; infiht; inflation; inheritance; innkeeper; Inns of Court; inoculation; inquest; insocna; insurance; interest; interrogatory; intestate; iron; itinerant; jail; Jesus; Jews; Joan of Arc; joint tenants; joint-stock companies; jointure; Jones, Inigo; journeyman; judge; jurisdiction; jurors; jury; justice; justices in eyre; Justices of Assize; Justices of the Peace; justiciar; Kent county; Keplar, Johannes; kill; kin, kindred; king; King Alfred the Great; King Charles I; King Charles II; King Edward I; King Edward the Confessor; King George III; King Henry I; King Henry II; King Henry VII; King Henry VIII; King James I; King James II; King John; King Richard the Lion-Hearted; King William and Mary; King William I, The Conqueror; king's peace; knight; knight's fee; knights' guild; knitting; laborer; ladies; land; landlord; land-owner; larceny; lastage; Latin; law merchant; lawsuit; lawyer; Laxton; lay; leap year; lease; leather; leet court; legacy; legerwite; legislation; legitimacy; Leibniz, Christian; Leicester; letters; libel; Liberi Quadripartitus; library; license; life; life-estate; lighthouse; limb; linen; Lion of Justice; literacy; literature; Littleton, Thomas; livery; Lloyds; Locke, John; London; Long Parliament; longitude; lord; Lords, House of; loriner; lottery; loyalty; machine; magistrates; Magna Carta; magnate; maiden; mail; magic; malicious prosecution; maintenance; Manchester; manor; manor courts; manufacturing; manumission; Marco Polo; market; marriage; marriage agreement; marriage portion; marshall; marquise; Massachusetts; Master of Arts; masters; Matilda; Mayflower; mayor; Maypole; mead; measures; meat; medicine; melee; member; merchandise; merchant; merchant adventurers; merchant guilds; merchet; Merciless Parliament; mercy; Merton; mesne; Methodists; microscope; Middlesex; midwives; military service; militia; miller; minister; minor; minstrels; miskenning; moat; Model Parliament; monarchy; monasteries; money; moneyer; monks; monopoly; moot; More, Thomas; morgen-gift; morning gift; mort d'ancestor; mortgage; mortmain; mother; murder; murdrum; mutilation; Napier, John; navy; Newcastle- on-Tyne; New England; New Model Army; newspapers; Newton, Issac; New World; nobility; noblemen, nobles; nonconformists; Normans; novel disseisin; nuisance; nun; Oakham, William; oaths; offender; oil; one hundred year war; open field system; ordeal; ordinance; orphans; outlaw; Oxford University; oxygen; papists; parent; parishes; Parliament; Parliament of Saints; partition; party; Pascal, Blaise; passport; patents; pauper; pawn; Peasant's Revolt; peers; peine forte et dure; penalty; penitentiary; Penn, William; Pennsylvania; penny; per stirpes; perjury; personal injury; personal property; petty serjeanty; petition; Petition of Right; physicians; Piers Plowman; pigherds; pilgrim; pillory; pipe rolls; piracy; pirate; plague; plaintiff; Plato; plays; pleading; pleas; police; pontage; poor; pope; popery; population; port; portreeve; portsoken ward; posse; possess; postal system; post mortem; pottery; praecipe in capite; pressing; Presbyterians; prescription; presentment; priest; printing; prison; Privy Council; privy seal; probable cause; probate; proclamation; promise under seal; promissory note; property; prosecutor; prostitutes; protectorate; Protestants; Puritans; purveyance; putting out system; Quakers; quaranteen, quarter sessions; queen; Queen Elizabeth I; Queen Mary; Queen's Bench; quo warranto; rack; Ralegh, Walter; rape; Ray, John; real action; recognition; reeve; reformation; regrate; release; relief; religion; remainder; renaissance; rent; replevin; residence; Restoration; reversion; revolt; reward; rights; riot; riot act; roads; robbery; Robin Hood; Roemer, Olaus; Roman law; Root and Branch Petition; roundheads; royal court; Royal Navy; Royal Society; royalists; Rump Parliament; Russia; sacrament; sacrifice; sailor; sake and soke; sale; salt; saltworks; sanctuary; Sandwich; Saxon; scaetts; scavage; scholar; school; science; scolds; scot; scrofula; scutage; seal; seamen; searchers; search warrant; sedition, seditious; seisin; self- defense; self-help; Separatists; serf; serjeanty; servant; service; servitude; settlement; sewer; Shakespeare, William; shaving; sheep; Shelley's case; sheriff; sheriff's turn; shillings; ships; shipwreck; shire; shire courts; shire-gemot; shoemaker; Short Parliament; shrine; sickness; silver; Slade's case; slander; slave; slingshot; smallpox; smith; Smithfield; socage; sokemen; soldiers; solicitor; son; Spanish Armada; speedy pursuit; spinning; spinning jenny; spinning wheel; spinsters; spouse; St. Augustine; St. Germain; St. Lazarus; St. Paul's Church; statute of laborers; squire; staple; Star Chamber Court; strangers; steam; steel; stengesdint; Stevinus; steward; stock-and-land lease; stocking-frame knitters; stocks; stolen goods; stone; Stonehenge; straw; streets; stretbreche; subtenants; successor; sue; suit; summary; summon; Sunday; Supporters of the Bill of Rights Society; surety; surgery; surname; swearing; swords; tale; tallage; tanner; tavern; tax; tea; team; Ten Commandments; tenancies; tenancy, tenant; tenants in common; tenement; tenure; term; testament; Thames, River; theft; thegn; Theodore; theology; theow; thermometer; Thirty Years' War; tile; tiler; tin; title; tolls; tories; Torricelli, Evangelista; tort; torture; tournament; Tower Hill; Tower of London; town; town-reeve; trades, tradesmen; transportation; treason, high and petit; treasure trove; treasury; trespass; trespass on the case; trial by combat (battle); trover; turnpike; twelve; tyne; umbrella, Unitarians; university; usury; use-trust; vagrants, vagrancy; vassal; verderer; verdict; vessels; vikings; vill; villages; villeinage; villeins; vintner; Virginia; wall; Wallis, John; War of the Roses; ward, wardship; wardmoot; wardrobe; warrantor, warranty; waste; water; watermen; watermill; waterwheel; Watt, James; wealthy; weapon; weaving, weavers; webs; wed; wedding; weights; weir; well; wer, wergeld; Wesley, John; Westminster; whigs; whipping; White Tower; Whitsuntide; widows; wife; wife-beating; wills; Winchester; windmills; window tax; wine; witch; witchcraft; wite; witan; witanagemot; witnesses; wives; Wolsey, Thomas; Wyclif, John; woman-covert; women; wool; wounding; writs; writs of assistance; writs of error; Year Books; yeomanry, yeomen