Peeps at Postage Stamps

"According to calculations based on the average numbers used on several days, the Post Office must have lost about £50 a day during the period mentioned above. Who were the originators and perpetrators of the fraud will probably never be known; possibly a stockbroker's clerk (or a small 'syndicate' of these gentlemen), or, more probably, a clerk in the Post Office itself. It was an ingenious fraud, well planned, and cleverly carried out at a minimum of risk, and but for the market for old stamps it would never have been discovered."

For purposes of reference, we give below a list of the stamps which have been most frequently copied, together with hints on how to detect the forgeries. (G. = genuine; F. = forgery.)

Alsace and Lorraine.—G., the points of the network in the background turned up; F. has them turned down. The "P" of word "Postes" farther from margin in G. than F. Used copies more likely to be G. than unused.

Belgium.—One centime, Leopold, 1861. F., yellowish paper instead of white. The word "Postes" has no outline round each letter in F. Obliterated specimens often F.

Brazil.—The early issues, with numerals in centre of filigree work often imitated. Paper too thick in F.

Germany.—Nearly all the rarer stamps have been copied; specimens should be accepted with caution.

Cape of Good Hope.—Triangular issues, 1853-1864. G. has knee of "Hope" rounded; F., angular. If top line of knee produced to border, it cuts through the centre of the letter "S." in "Postage," in G. but through letter "O" in F.

Cyprus.—The line-engraved Great Britain issue with overprint. In this case forged overprints have been added to genuine stamps. Forgeries have the "C" in "Cyprus" thicker than the other letters, also the "Y" set higher than other letters. The extreme length from "C" to "S" is seldom accurate, as given in catalogues, in F.

France.—The five francs, 1869. F. perforated 13; G. perforated 13-1/2. Also F. has dots in corner of frame, not rounded as in G.

Mauritius.—Many of the earlier issues F.

Nevis.—The shilling green, 1861. In G. ink seems to stand up from paper, but flat in F. The lines on woman's arm are straight in G., but in dots in F.

New South Wales.—The stamps known as "Sydney Views" have been largely copied. The large fivepenny, sixpenny, eightpenny, and shilling often had unusually wide margins when perforated. The faker has trimmed off the tooth edges, and called the stamps the rare imperforated specimens.

Nova Scotia.—Some of the fine early issues have been lithographed in F., while the G. were engraved.

States of the Church.—These stamps have been largely reprinted from original dies. Only stamps on original envelopes should be accepted by the novice.

Portugal.—Many of the surcharged issues have been forged; the overprinted words being imitations.

Sedan.—No genuine stamps ever existed; all were spurious.

Sierra Leone, 1872-1881.—A type of stamp that is representative of many others. F. lithographed, with the delicate lines on the face as heavy as those constituting the background.

United States.—Early issues often had a grille—i.e., an embossed series of lines to prevent removal of obliteration without being noticed. F. seldom have grille.

CHAPTER IX

Across the sea, in France, the idea of letter-carrying was also developing in this period of stress and struggle. In the year when Cromwell was installed as "Protector," a Comte de Villayer was permitted to place pillar-boxes in the thoroughfares of Paris and provide the inhabitants with a local postal service. Villayer seems to have been greatly concerned as to the best method of collecting the postage on the letters placed in his charge until the idea of issuing a wrapper bearing some distinctive design occurred to him. These paper bands were placed on sale in a number of shops, and cost two sous apiece. Each letter had to be wrapped in one of them, which Villayer's men tore off prior to effecting delivery. The system is of unusual interest to philatelists, because the ornamental wrapper devised by this Frenchman supplies us with the origin from which postage stamps sprang.

At home the business of letter-carrying was growing with considerable rapidity, considering how troublous were these times. Villayer's counterpart in London was a man named Dockwra. He organized a system of depots throughout the city for receiving correspondence. People took their letters to these depots, paid the postage in actual coin, and an attendant franked the communications by means of a hand stamp. This was a device exactly similar to the obliterating stamps seen to-day on the counters of our post offices. Dockwra's hand stamp bore a triangular design bearing the curious legend, "Post Payd, Peny."

We now know the history of the first stamped wrapper, the first franking stamp, and the first adhesive stamp. At this point we will speak of the first stamped envelope. The "Mulready," as this pioneer envelope was called, owed its origin to Sir Rowland Hill and his co-workers. The penny black adhesive label was considered to be too great an innovation by Sir Rowland's followers, and, as a sort of compromise, it was decided to issue a stamped envelope as an alternative to the penny adhesive. The two were placed on sale at the same moment, and, curiously enough, the adhesive immediately proved a tremendous success, whilst the Mulready only received slight favours. This happened in spite of the fact that the authorities were confident that the stamped envelope would prove the more popular of the two.

The Mulready was a curious, if not weird, production. The design covered half of the face of the envelope, and consisted of Britannia surrounded by people and animals treated symbolically. The paper used for the envelope bore the silk threads spoken of in an earlier chapter.

The Mulready deserved a better fate. All the comic papers at the time reproduced grotesque imitations of it; every wit used it disparagingly, and in all ways it became a butt for humour. Perhaps the best-known caricatures of this unfortunate envelope were those produced by Doyle, a boy of fifteen. Though his drawings never received postal sanction, they are often sold by stamp dealers and treasured by collectors as curiosities.

Before leaving the Mulready, we must admit that two other envelopes claim to be older than this production of Sir Rowland Hill. The first is the special-letter cover, which was issued to members of Parliament in January, 1840, and the second, the New South Wales embossed envelope of 1838. Of the former we need only say that its use was merely of a private nature, whilst of the latter our knowledge is very imperfect and hardly trustworthy.

The first postcard was issued by Germany in comparatively recent times; its use was suggested by Dr. von Stephan, a high authority in postal matters. The pioneer letter-card emanated from the Kingdom of Belgium, and bore a red ten centimes stamp with the head of Leopold II.

Having discussed the earliest forms of postal stationery, it will be interesting to examine certain of the adhesive stamps which claim notoriety on account of their positions as pioneers. The first stamp of all, as we have said before, was the penny black of Great Britain, but the earliest issue of foreign stamps (i.e., omitting those of Great Britain) dates from the year 1843, and came from Brazil. The labels are not attractive in appearance; they are large, and bear large numerals surrounded by a circular background of filigree work. They have been nicknamed, not inappropriately, the bull's eye stamps of Brazil. The stamps remained in currency but one year, and are, therefore, rare.

It is rather curious to think that Brazil—a republic not usually associated with progressive measures—should have been, with Great Britain, the only country to issue stamps for nine whole years after their introduction. In short, no other Government issued adhesives until the January of 1849. On the first of that month, however, both Belgium and France provided stamps for the convenience of their people. The Belgian stamp consisted of two varieties—the ten centimes, dark brown, and the twenty centimes, blue, both bearing a head and shoulder engraving of Leopold I. In France one label was issued; it bore the value of ten centimes, in dark brown, and was ornamented with the head of Ceres. These three specimens were, therefore, the first adhesives to receive recognition on the Continent.

It is pleasing to note how Brazil, Belgium, and France, all imitated Great Britain in the colour and values of their first issues; it is also an interesting coincidence that the earliest labels of all these countries, Great Britain included, were extremely short-lived.

The first colonial stamps were the two Mauritius "line-engravings," which were described at length in the chapter dealing with rare specimens.

The first picture stamp is often taken to be the large Congo adhesive bearing a view of the port of Matadi, whilst sometimes pride of place is awarded to the Columbus ship stamp of the Argentine Republic. In reality neither of these can claim the honour of being the forerunner of our picture issues, an honour which rightly belongs to the early "Sydney Views" of New South Wales. These latter stamps are extremely scarce, and change ownership for from £5 to £10 a copy.

Turning now to the stamps of our Mother Country, the penny black may be again mentioned as being the first adhesive to bear the head of Queen Victoria. King Edward was first revealed to us philatelically by the halfpenny, penny, twopence-halfpenny, and sixpenny values of Great Britain—these four stamps being issued on the same day, January 1, 1902. King George's earliest stamp was the twopence-halfpenny label issued by the Union of South Africa.

CHAPTER X

In recent times it has become fashionable, in certain countries, to celebrate national events by means of special issues of stamps. The idea is a very acceptable one so long as it is not abused. Unfortunately, however, we must say that many countries do abuse this interesting way of commemorating their historic achievements. The consolidation of an empire, the discovery of a continent, the centenary of a great victory, are all matters of history which we are glad to see recorded in the pages of the stamp album; but when a series of labels is issued to acquaint the world of the death of an unheard-of poet, or the erection of an obscure post office, then we can only surmise that the stamps were printed more for philatelic than postal purposes.

Commemorative stamps coming from most European countries, also the British Colonies, may usually be accepted for collecting purposes, but those which hail from one or other of the South American republics should be purchased with caution. Some of these Governments simply cast around for events to celebrate, hoping that each new issue will help to swell the national exchequer in no little measure.

Probably the first celebration issue of any country was the penny envelope of Great Britain, bearing a blue stamp, which appeared on July 2, 1890. The occasion was the jubilee of the "Uniform Penny Postage," an event which was celebrated by a festival held in the South Kensington Museum.

The envelope is undoubtedly attractive. Beyond the familiar profile portrait of Queen Victoria, and an artistic rendering of her coat of arms, it bears a picture of the North Mail coach making for Highgate in 1790 at eight miles an hour. In contrast to this antiquated method of locomotion we are also shown the North Mail railway express approaching Carlisle at forty-eight miles an hour. Two other figures, one a letter-carrier of 1840, and the other a postman of 1890, complete the ornamentation.

This envelope, and a correspondence-card enclosed within it, which appropriately bears a portrait of Sir Rowland Hill, was sold by post offices on the one day only for sixpence. Though it is a curiosity worth obtaining, there is little demand for it, and dealers are glad to supply copies even now at the original price.

Among the stamps of our Colonies, those of Newfoundland have always been attractive; but probably the set which was issued to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the island by Jean Cabot is the most interesting of all. Cabot, it will be remembered, though born in Genoa, settled in Bristol as a merchant. In 1497 he was commissioned by Henry VII. to search for undiscovered lands. He set out with two small ships, and sighted first Newfoundland, then Cape Breton Isle, and afterwards Nova Scotia. In 1498 he died.

From Newfoundland to Canada is not a great distance. To this British Dominion we are indebted for two fine commemorative sets. The first, that of 1897, was issued in honour of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, and the second to celebrate the tercentenary of the founding of Quebec. This town, on the St. Lawrence River, owes its origin to Jacques Cartier, a Frenchman born at St. Malo. Cartier sailed from his native port in 1534 accompanied by two small vessels of twenty tons apiece. He landed on the Gaspé shores and claimed the territory for French sovereignty. His stay was of short duration, for we read that in 1535 he again set out from St. Malo, and this time sailed up the mouth of the St. Lawrence and landed at a little native settlement, which afterwards received the name of Quebec. (Kebek is the Indian for "The Rock.") We are bound to state that little came of Cartier's exploits, for not until Champlain visited the district many years later, with the dual purpose of spreading Christianity and opening up commerce, did the French settlement prosper.

The pictures on the stamps are of interest. The 1 cent portrays both Cartier and Champlain; the 5 cents gives a picture of the latter's house; the 7 cents introduces Montcalm and Wolfe; the 10 cents reveals Quebec in 1700; the 15 cents depicts Champlain's departure for the interior, then an almost unknown world; whilst the 20 cents is inscribed "Cartier's arrival before Quebec."

Another set of commemorative stamps comes from Barbados, its object being to celebrate the heroic exploits of Nelson—the Battle of Trafalgar in particular. The tragedy which was enacted on board the Victory, almost, if we may so express it, at the moment of victory, the mournful journey to England, the lying-in-state at Greenwich, and the funeral in St. Paul's Cathedral, are all too well known to need description; but it is less well known that Horatio Nelson spent many of his early years of seamanship in the West Indies, and particularly in and around the Barbados. It is on this account that a fine monument has been erected to his memory in this Colony, and a set of stamps was issued to mark the unveiling.

Australasia has not given us many celebration stamps, but those which have come from the Antipodes are extremely interesting. What could be more stirring than the design on the three-halfpenny 1901 khaki stamp of New Zealand? It was issued to mark the departure of troops on their way to the fighting-line in South Africa.

Another interesting set of stamps was provided some twenty years ago by New South Wales to remind the world that it had been a colony for just over a century. One of the values bears a portrait of Captain Cook, who discovered the Colony in 1770; whilst another reveals, appropriately enough, the features of Captain Arthur Phillips, the founder of the first convict settlement on these Australian shores. Up till the time of Phillips our prisoners had been banished to America, but after the war, which gained for the New England States their independence, this outlet was closed to our exiles, and fresh fields were found in New South Wales.

Probably no event in history has received more attention on the part of stamp producers than the discoveries of Columbus. The Argentine Republic was, we believe, the first country to honour the memory of this intrepid explorer by the issue of postal labels, but to the United States must be awarded the credit of issuing the finest set of Columbian stamps. This series of postal adhesives is probably one of the grandest collections of historical stamps that has ever been produced, and, fortunately, the lower values are cheap, and easily obtained.

Other commemorative stamps of the United States have been issued—namely, the Omaha, the Pan-American, the Buffalo, and the Panama Exhibition stamps; but though some of them are exceedingly attractive in design, none of them can compare with the Columbus issue in point of interest.

Another intrepid explorer to receive recognition by means of an issue of stamps was Vasco da Gama. To mention his name recalls to mind the wonderful and perilous journey which he was the first to make around the southern point of Africa, and thence to India. Vasco was fortunate in living in Portugal at a time when this kingdom was at the height of its fame and prosperity. Financed by the then King, Manoel, he left Lisbon on July 8, 1497, with four vessels manned by 160 men. He took four long months to reach the island of St. Helena, and whilst rounding the Cape the trials of this brave band of men were terrible in the extreme. Calicut, in India, was reached on May 20, 1498, and after a short and none too pleasant stay among the unfriendly natives, a start for home was made. On returning to Portugal Vasco da Gama received a tremendous ovation from the King and the people.

The Portuguese stamps issued in 1898 to celebrate the fourth centenary of the discovery of the route to India bear very attractive pictures.

Three events of interest have given rise to special stamps in Italy: (a) The fiftieth anniversary of the freedom of Sicily; (b) the jubilee of the kingdom of Italy; and (c) the festivities to commemorate the completion of the Venice Campanile.

To appreciate the meaning of the first two events, we must remember that the present kingdom of Italy was, less than sixty years ago, a number of little states, each contending against its neighbour. Sicily, one of the conflicting areas, was ruled by Ferdinand II. of Spain, a man noted for the harsh and tyrannical rule which he inflicted on his subjects. In answer to an appeal from the men of Sicily, Garibaldi sailed from Genoa with 1,000 followers, landed at Marsala on May 11, 1860, and took Palermo soon afterwards. The people were jubilant at his success, and Ferdinand was quickly deposed. Sicily joined Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel reigned over the two territories.

In the same year, Central Italy, Southern Italy, the Papal States, and Naples, all joined the kingdom of Emmanuel and, in February, 1861, the first Parliament of all the Italian States was held at Turin. It was this event that was celebrated by the Italian Jubilee stamps.

The third event which the Italian stamps commemorated was the completion of the new Campanile in Venice. The old monument collapsed on the square of St. Mark's some ten years ago, and a new erection of similar design to the original one has been built in its place.

A very attractive series of stamps was placed on sale throughout Austria in 1908 to commemorate the sixtieth year of the reign of Franz Joseph I. The labels are particularly interesting, as they reveal to us many Austrian rulers about whom our history books have much to say. They are as follows:

1 heller: Karl VI. Best known, perhaps, as the father of Maria Theresa.

2 heller: Maria Theresa.

3 heller: Joseph II. A great reformer, but a very harsh ruler.

5, 10, 25, 30, and 35 heller: Franz Joseph I.

6 heller: Leopold II. Brother and successor to Joseph II. Pacified the Netherlands and Hungary which his elder brother had inflamed.

12 heller: Franz I. Assisted Napoléon in his campaign against Russia, and later joined with other countries to break Napoleon's power.

20 heller: Ferdinand. Was persuaded to abdicate in favour of Franz Joseph, as he was too weak to rule in such troublous times.

The last commemorative stamps of which we shall speak were issued in 1913 by Russia to honour the House of Romanoff. The adhesives are printed in attractive colours, with bold designs, indicative of Russian art. The heads revealed to us in this striking portrait-gallery are those of Nicholas II., Peter I., Alexander II., Alexander III., Peter II., Katherine II., Nicholas I., Alexander I., Alexei Michaelovitch, Paul I., Elizabeth and Michael Feodorovitch.

Many other celebration stamps have appeared from time to time in various countries; notice of them may be found in any postage stamp catalogue.

CHAPTER XI

From New Zealand let us wander to Tasmania. On these pages of our album we find interesting pictures of Lake Marion, Mount Wellington, the town of Hobart, Russell Falls, Lake St. Clair, and the waterfalls of Dilston.

Curious though it may seem, waterfalls are favourite subjects for stamp ornamentation. We have Niagara on the 5 cents United States value of 1901; the Llandovery Falls on the 1d. 1900, Jamaica; the Kaieteur Falls on the 10 cents 1898 of British Guiana; the Stanley Falls and the Inkissi Falls on the 1894 Congo issue; also the Victoria Falls on the 1905 issue of British South Africa. Were we to place these picture stamps and others representing similar subjects side by side on a page by themselves in our collection, we should have quite a fine array of the world's most noted waterfalls.

Perhaps next to waterfalls, mountain views claim most popularity on postage labels. Besides those mentioned already, we have Mount Kini Balou on the 18 cents 1894, North Borneo; Table Mountain on the 1d. 1900, Cape of Good Hope; the Leon mountains on various Nicaraguan issues; Popocatepetl on the 1 peso 1899, Mexico; Mount Konaluanui on the 2 cent 1894, Hawaii, and others.

Historic buildings are, as one would expect, frequently represented in our collections. A most interesting stamp is the Chinese label bearing a view of the Temple of Heaven, a sacred edifice erected to the memory of Confucius, to which the Emperor repairs periodically and prays for the favour of Heaven. The Kremlin and Winter Palace, both well-known Russian buildings, figure on the stamps of the Tsar. The Grecian adhesives reveal pictures of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon and Stadium; the Egyptian adhesives show a sphinx and the Pyramids; a Dominican adhesive bears a picture representing the Mausoleum of Columbus; whilst a recent issue from Turkey, celebrating the recapture of Adrianople, bears a fine view of the Mosque of Selim.

Of curious things our stamps provide us in plenty. A Newfoundland adhesive shows an iceberg; a Toga stamp, a breadfruit-tree; a Tasmanian stamp, Tasman's Arch; a Kedah stamp, a sheaf of rice; a North Borneo stamp, a sago palm; a Columbian stamp, an American execution; a Bahamas stamp, a staircase; another Toga stamp, a prehistoric trilith; a Canadian stamp, a map of the British possessions; a Roumanian stamp, a picture of the Queen nursing a wounded soldier; a Portuguese stamp, the vision of St. Anthony; a Liberian stamp, a coffee plantation; a United States stamp, an aeroplane; and a Peruvian stamp, a suspension bridge.

The Toga trilith, it may be well to explain, is an erection composed of three large blocks of stone placed together like door-posts and a lintel, and standing by themselves. It may be compared with the monuments at Stonehenge, or the Druidical monoliths to be seen at Carnac, in Brittany.

If mythology be of interest, the stamps of Greece will prove attractive. This country offers some capital pictures of gladiators, disc-throwers, wrestlers; of Hermes, Apollo, Atlas, Iris, Pallas Athene; of ancient chariots, vases; as well as tableaux representing such incidents as "Atlas offering the apples of Hesperides to Hercules," and "The struggle between Hercules and Antæus."

Ships, some noted and others merely curious, figure on many labels. We have an Atlantic schooner on a Newfoundland stamp; a native canoe on a Papuan stamp; a Nile steamboat on an Egyptian stamp; a dhow on a Borneo stamp; the flagship of Columbus on a Grenada stamp; Cabot's ship, the Matthew, leaving the Avon, and Guy's ship, the Endeavour, on Newfoundland stamps; and the Hohenzollern, the German Emperor's yacht, on the unattractive stamps of the German colonies.

Of animals there are far too many for individual mention, but the following are some of those depicted in our "philatelic zoo": A kangaroo, zebra, dromedary, camel, platypus, elephant, hippopotamus, lizard, giraffe, dog, gnu, codfish, springbok, seal, egret, parrot, wryneck, emu, lyre bird, ptarmigan, chimpanzee, boar, rhinoceros, honey bear, ourang-outang, stag, argus pheasant, panther, crocodile, and kiwi.

Some entire issues of stamps are particularly interesting if they be considered solely from the pictorial standpoint. Probably the Bosnian issue of 1906 is the finest in this matter. The scenes represented in this attractive collection are—

1 heller: View of Deboj.

2 heller: View of Mostar.

3 heller: Plima Tower at Jaice.

5 heller: Pass of Narenta, with view of the Prenj.

6 heller: Ramatae.

10 heller: Road in the Valley of Vrba.

20 heller: Old bridge at Mostar.

25 heller: Sarajevo.

30 heller: Animal carrying letters on passes.

35 heller: Pavilion at Jezero.

40 heller: Mail waggon with horses.

45 heller: Market at Sarajevo.

50 heller: Mail motor-waggon.

1 kreutzer: The Carsija at Sarajevo.

2 kreutzer: The Lucas Tower at Jaice.

Sarajevo, it will be remembered, was the scene of the assassination of the Austrian Archduke, in 1914, whilst other places shown in the above pictures have come to our notice through the despatches bearing on the great European War.

How can we make the most of all these interesting and beautiful picture stamps? Quite a good plan is to build up a collection devoted to these attractive labels alone, arranging them not according to their countries, but according to the subject represented by them. For instance, there are sufficient stamps portraying animals to permit of a zoological section, arranged in scientific groups—mammals, birds, reptiles, etc. Of course, a good deal of written explanations should be provided with each adhesive. The Greek stamp representing Atlas might be followed by a brief account of the arduous duties imposed upon this unfortunate hero; the Toga stamp with the trilith might be accompanied by the short note given a few paragraphs above; whilst the stamps bearing geographical features might have little sketch-maps placed underneath them so that their exact positions may be learnt. If this plan be followed, the picture stamps will become extremely fascinating, and our store of general knowledge enhanced considerably.

CHAPTER XII

Let us take, first of all, the case of Germany. In the earliest years we find stamps issued by a multitude of little States—i.e., Baden, Bavaria, Bergedorf, Brunswick, Hanover, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Odenburg, Prussia, Saxony, etc.—whilst the towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck also had individual postal rights of their own. The first step of consolidation came on January 1, 1868, when most of the above authorities joined what was called the North German Confederation, and nearly all of the separate units ceased to issue stamps. The Confederation adhesives were current from 1868 to 1871—that is, until the German Empire sprang into being. When the Franco-German War of 1870-1871 placed the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine under Prussian rule, special German stamps were sold in the captured territory. As they bore values in centimes, they were withdrawn as soon as "groschens" and "kreuzers" became generally current. A less important instance of Prussian absorption occurred on August 9, 1890, when the labels of Heligoland bearing a portrait of Queen Victoria were replaced by the regular German stamps. Further Teutonic progress is made evident by the numerous colonial issues which this kingdom has placed on sale since 1897. Lastly, may be mentioned the adhesives bearing the familiar effigy of "Germania," overprinted for use in Belgium.

The stamps of Spain are also interesting. The first issue (January 1, 1850) bore very crude portraits of the unscrupulous Queen Isabella II. Various sets, all of them highly inartistic, were issued between 1850 and 1868. In the latter year a revolution occurred, and the Queen was deposed, a republic being instituted instead of the monarchy. Isabella's stamps were temporarily overprinted with the words "HABILITADO POR LA NACION," and when the stock was exhausted, a new design, bearing an allegorical head typifying Liberty and Spain, became current. The republic did not last long, for the claims to the throne of the Duke of Aosta were considered well founded, and he was crowned King in 1872. Amadeus, as he was called, figured on the stamps for a brief twelve months. These were stormy times. Unable to cope with them, he abdicated, and the republic was reinstated, the new stamps bearing first an allegorical figure of Peace and then of Justice. But even the representative Government was short-lived. The people once more turned to the House of Bourbon, and Alfonso XII. became King. He reigned ten years, and was then succeeded by his son, Alfonso XIII., the present ruling Sovereign.

The Italian adhesives are no less interesting. We have already indicated the manner in which Modena, Naples, Parma, Romagna, the Roman States, Sicily, Tuscany, and Sardinia joined together to form the Kingdom of Italy, and elected the King of Sardinia to be the new Sovereign. This latter was Victor Emmanuel II. He was succeeded by his son, Humbert I., who fell by the assassin's hand whilst riding on the outskirts of Milan in 1900. The present King, a fine example of soldier and statesman, is Victor Emmanuel III.

Probably no stamps reveal greater matters of historical importance than those of our neighbour, France. When adhesives were first issued by this country a republic was in power, and so an allegorical head, that of Ceres, embellished the new labels. In 1852 Louis Napoléon became President of the Republic, and, being a man who loved notoriety, he placed his bust upon the ten and twenty-five centimes values. Later on, as is known to all, he became Napoléon III.,[4] Emperor of the French, and the wording on the adhesives was changed from REPUB. FRANC. to EMPIRE FRANC. Later on, in 1863, to mark the successes which the French won over the Austrians, the head of Napoléon was encircled in a laurel crown. The final stage was reached in October, 1870, when the Germans gained an almost crushing victory over the French. As a result, the Empire fell, and a republic once more ruled over the country. The head of the Emperor was removed from the stamps, and Ceres again appeared upon them. Thus the adhesives of France plainly indicate the changing course taken by the Government of our neighbour across the Channel.

If we turn to the stamps of Portugal, a most interesting array of monarchs will be revealed. Queen Maria figures upon the earliest stamps, but after two years of currency her portrait gave place to that of King Pedro V., which in turn was followed by a representation of King Luiz. In 1889 King Carlos ascended the throne, and his effigy was given on the issues of 1892 and 1895. The assassination of Carlos and his elder son, which shocked the whole world, resulted in the appearance of King Manoel's features upon the stamps printed between 1908 and 1910. The events which marred his short and stormy reign are known to all, and in 1910 he took up his abode in England. Afterwards a republic sprang up, and the present adhesives bear the imprint of Liberty.

If we leave Europe and examine the stamps of the remaining four continents, many other events of great historical bearing will be revealed. The labels of the Transvaal, for instance, tell of two British occupations and two republics; the Egyptian labels show Turkish influence followed by a British protectorate; the early United States labels hint at the war which was waged to put down slavery; whilst the Cuban labels indicate Spanish occupation, followed first by the protection of the United States, and then by the creation of an independent republic. The adhesives of the Central and South American republics are worthy of special note, as they point to insurrections, wars, provisional governments, and troublous times in general. But no matter where we turn in our albums, interesting landmarks of the world's history will be revealed by our treasured labels.

CHAPTER XIII

3. In cases where the German colonial issues have run short in the conquered settlements we find that labels of British or French origin have been pressed into service—for instance, New Zealand stamps have been overprinted for use in Samoa.

All these classes of war labels permit of many interesting varieties, but, whenever possible, used specimens should be preferred to those which have not passed through the post. We make this statement because certain belligerent countries endeavoured to replenish their exchequers by the sale, to philatelists, of uncancelled copies.

The stamps used by troops who are fighting outside their own territory are probably the most valuable of war labels. The British Expeditionary Force in France and Belgium was at the outset provided with ordinary English postal adhesives. These adhesives, when bearing such postmarks as "Army Base Post Office, France," or the ordinary cancel marks of Ostend, Boulogne, Paris, etc., are extremely valuable. When the British stamps ran short, letters were franked by postmarks alone, and these are well worth collecting. The circular and rectangular marks bearing the word "Passed by Censor" are also interesting.

Communications coming from the Fleet bear cancel marks formed by a number of concentric rings. The varieties of this postal mark should be prized.

In all cases the complete envelope or card must be placed in the collection intact, and not just the cut-out postmark.

Probably the most carefully planned army postal service is that possessed by our Indian troops. Adhesive stamps are generally used on correspondence, the ordinary Indian issues, overprinted with the letters I.E.F. being employed.

From a Field Service Manual[5] on "Posts and Telegraphs," we have been able to glean a few details respecting the organization and establishment of the Indian military post offices. In times of peace a stock of tents and equipment, sufficient for the supply of three base post offices, fifty first-class field post offices, ten second-class field post offices, and for the supervising staff, is kept in store at Lahore in the charge of the Postal Department of the Punjab.

On the outbreak of war the military postal service is organized by the Director-General of Posts and Telegraphs in India according to the requirements of the Army authorities.

The supervising staff is selected by him from a roll of European volunteers for such service maintained in his office, the full war establishment consisting of six Directors or Deputy Directors, eighteen Assistant Directors, twenty-four Inspectors, and fifty Postmasters. The rest of the establishment is selected by the Postmaster-General of the Punjab.

One Director or Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, and four Inspectors constitute the normal postal personnel of an expeditionary force. They wear the ordinary field service uniform of the Indian Army according to their respective ranks, distinguished by the word "Post" on the shoulder straps.