Penmanship: Teaching and Supervision

THE PHYSICAL TRAINING PHASE

Pupils who are apt at athletics will easily recognize the purpose of muscular movement penmanship. They will draw upon former experiences in the field or gymnasium and compare the value of relaxation, good posture, rhythm, and continuity of movement. They will recognize that the same laws of control govern Indian club swinging, field sports, and penmanship. They will appreciate the fact that to obtain good results with the pen they must follow with military precision the directions of the leader. Interest will be doubled when pupils really find themselves. Many pupils obey the laws of correlation naturally, and through their athletics they gain control of the muscular adjustment that operates in the process of writing.

Adult learners of muscular movement frequently have more difficulty in relaxing completely than do younger pupils. Often with adults the habit of bodily relaxation has not been developed along with other habits, and therefore muscular tension prevails. A leading criticism on Americans is that we never relax.

James says: “It is your relaxed and easy worker who is in no hurry and quite thoughtless most of the while of consequences who is your efficient worker; and tension and anxiety, present and future, all mixed up together in our mind at once, are the surest drags upon steady progress.”

The mind must be concentrated upon the relaxation of the muscles in order to get the best results. As writing is feeling passed through thought and fixed in form, it is very important in writing that the mind help make the muscles to make movements, just as it helps them to relax. By putting the muscles in a workable condition at the beginning of each lesson, great improvement in muscular response will be observed. Muscular relaxation must be considered seriously if we would make real progress in muscular training. We all know how cramped and tremulous the letters are when they are written by a hand that is under nervous tension. The nerves must be at ease, the pen must rest lightly in the hand in order to obtain the best results. Teachers who have not the ability to relax themselves, cannot hope to lead the class to do so. The tone of voice used in giving directions, whether musical or strident, has to do with inducing relaxation. The following plan has proven of value in the class room:

1. Pupils sit erect in seats, stretch arms out even with the shoulders, feet on the floor, heads erect, while the teacher counts softly to ten, with the pupils; at ten, drop the arms to the sides. Repeat six times. A practiced eye will soon see whose arms are tense. Ask pupils to become as limber as they would in skating, jumping, dancing, horseback riding or swimming.

2. Pupils sit erect in seats, bend forward from the hips, raise arms over the desk, and six inches from the desk, make a square turn at the elbow, count ten slowly, drop the arms on the desk; repeat six times.

3. Pupils sit erect, bend from the hips, both elbows on the lower corners of the desk, relax, dropping the forearm on the desk; repeat six times.

4. Retaining position in paragraph 3 let pupils roll the muscle below the elbow in a circular manner to a soft musical count, from one to ten. Eyes should be first directed toward the arm, then away from it, toward the ceiling. By following the last suggestion, it is observed that pupils relax unconsciously. All of this drill will be of no value unless pupils are able to retain a relaxed condition of the muscles while the writing instrument is in use. Let them take the handle end of the pen, and prepare for this circular motion before making it.

5. It will be necessary for the teacher to spend a few minutes at the beginning of every lesson with one or more relaxing exercises during the first months of each school year, and later if found necessary. It is advisable to break the lesson with relaxation exercises if it is observed that pupils are becoming keyed-up through effort.

6. Rhythm and regularity of movement are essential. Pupils’ counting aloud relieves the tension. It may be necessary to lay the pens down once or twice, for a few seconds each time, during the lesson. Ability to control the writing arm comes in proportion to our ability to relax the controlling muscles. Control in the matter of penmanship is a vital educational factor. Says a well known authority: “Could the school teach effectively the lesson of self control, we need have little fear of the results when the product of the system is thrown upon the currents of the world. What is the most important attribute of man as a moral being? May we not answer, the faculty of self control? This it is which forms a chief distinction between the human being and the brute.”

CORRECT POSTURE

Correct posture while writing is an essential; first, from the standpoint of health, and again, that we may have free play of the writing muscles. Proper seating has an important place here. The desk should be sufficiently high from the seat, so that, when a pupil is seated and with both arms on the desk, the shoulders should not be raised. If the desk is too low, pupils will bend in the shoulders instead of from the hips and the chest will be compressed and the spine contorted.

No doubt many cases of spinal trouble are a direct result of improper seating and unhealthful posture during school hours. Pupils frequently bend the neck and strain the nerves and muscles uselessly. The hint, “Heads up” is often a sufficient reminder and will serve to correct this ungraceful and harmful habit. By sitting almost square in front of the desk, circulation is not impeded in any way and relaxation will result more easily. The body supports itself, and must not touch the desk. The eyes should be fourteen inches from the paper. In order to be comfortable, the feet must touch the floor. It is within the province of the manual training department to provide wooden footstools of simple construction for the small pupils who must sit at large desks.

With the feet on the floor, body erect, ready to bend from the hips, chest high, arms hanging at the sides in a relaxed manner, we are ready for the next step. By placing the elbows at, or near the lower corner of the desk, raising forearms, then relaxing and dropping to the desk, the pupils are impressed with the idea that they must keep the cushionlike muscle on the desk. The elbows may extend beyond the edge of the desk, perhaps an inch, if this adds to the comfort of the writer. There should be a right angle turn at the elbow.

Drill on correct posture should be given frequently until acquired, several times during a lesson, in fact, while learning. Too many liberties with these rules will cause trouble later when the next step is to be accomplished.

With the forearms on the desk, close the right hand; open and close several times; with the right hand half open, the tips and nails of the third and little fingers touch the desk. The knuckles of the thumb and three fingers should be in sight. Every joint is bent a trifle in correct position of the hand. The two points of contact then are a large portion of the under forearm and the tops and nails of the third and little fingers. The wrist should be kept straight and free from the paper. The side of the hand must not touch the paper. Slip a card under the side of the hand to test this point. The muscles that hold the third and little finger in correct positions need to be strengthened. Pupils are apt to straighten the fingers and bring about a tension or go to the other extreme and curl the third and little fingers into the palm of the hand and glide on the knuckle joints. Both positions strain the ligaments and bear away from, instead of toward, good control. It is most important that a beginner should watch the position of the hand. Other mistakes may be rectified gradually, but correct position of the hand must be established at once.

The penholder is held by the thumb and first and second finger, touching the second finger near the root of the nail. The first finger joints are bent slightly. The first finger rests on the penholder at least an inch from the point of the pen. The thumb joint is also bent. The penholder may cross above or below the knuckle joint of the first finger. The penholder should point half way between the shoulder and the elbow. Keep the penpoint on the paper squarely, wearing both nibs equally.

In Comprehensive Physical Culture, we find this valuable suggestion: “In sitting it is necessary to hold the chest up; to guard against bending forward at the waist line, for this contracts the chest, cramps the lungs and stomach, and often produces dyspepsia. In sitting, if one wishes to bend, the movement should be from the hips, but never from the waist; the knees should never be crossed, for this position, besides being inelegant and ungraceful, often leads to paralysis by diverting the blood from the leg through pressure. The one rule to be observed by the woman who seeks to be healthy and graceful is to keep the chest active; it should never be relaxed; holding this part of the body constantly erect gives real poise to the carriage and strength to the muscles. A fine bearing is of great advantage, for it has a significance which people intuitively recognize and respect; the person who comes before us chest raised and head erect inspires confidence. Other things being equal, the person who elevates the chest constantly is more self-respecting than the one who habitually depresses it.”

CORRECT MOVEMENT

Pupils must be taught that a line is the product of the motion used; “that the motion preceding the contact of the pen to the paper must be in the direction of the line to be made, and that some letters being more complex than others, less speed should be used.” For example, the straight stroke exercise is essential as a beginning step in movement application because it not only stretches the muscles, but correctly done it teaches direction. Movement that prepares for the straight stroke exercise is best obtained by taking correct position and pushing the first finger to and from the center of the chest with the third and fourth finger nails gliding on the desk and forming a movable rest. The wrist must be kept free at this time, and the forearm moves on the cushionlike muscle below the elbow. We base the direction or slant of down strokes in letters later upon this straight stroke exercise. If the ovals, the next exercise in order, take an incorrect slant at any time, return to the practice of the straight strokes as a corrective means toward the proper slant.

Pupils must know that the direction of movement is one of the chief essentials, and that before they can possess ability to produce properly proportioned forms they must develop their movement in the proper direction. They must be led to understand that the mere free and easy action of the arm in any direction is not necessarily a movement that can be used in writing.

To insure against too slow a movement it will be necessary to use some measure for time. Counting is a good means of regulating the movement; it keeps the class working enthusiastically together, and gives an idea of how fast to practice. One count should be given for each down stroke. The count, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 20; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 30, etc., to one hundred is advised for straight strokes and ovals. All pupils counting in concert with the teacher at the rate of about two hundred down strokes per minute is effective, as the oral count relieves the muscular tension that is apt to prevail at this time. Insist that every arm move from the shoulder and that each pupil feel correct movement and observe his own arm. It is advisable to use the watch, and time pupils daily on a part of all drill work. If the count be too rapid, nervous spasmodic movements will result; if too slow, the fingers or wrist joint will be apt to act, and finger movement will be the result. A steady rhythmic beat is essential, to tone down the speed of the nervous and erratic and inspire the slow ones into more rapid response.

There is a subtle influence in the sprightly musical count as well as in the conversational count, such as “round, round, round,” or “light, light, light,” to induce proper width to a narrow oval, or lightness to a heavy line. A mistake that is fatal to early progress is frequently made by allowing pupils to take the pen in hand to write before automatic movement is gained. Much drill on relaxation and study of the writing machine and attention to rhythm work at the correct speed is necessary at the beginning of each lesson, to make for automatism. Sufficient speed to discourage finger and induce muscular movement must be insisted upon at all times.

At this point it will be observed that pupils vary in regard to their ability in the use of free movement. The group plan meets this difficulty very successfully. Some allowance must be made for new pupils, those habitually irregular, and for the slow pupils in rooms where children have not been segregated for ability.

When all is done that can be done by the class plan to make pupils understand relaxation, posture, and motive power, we find that there will still be some who have not made sufficient progress to advance. The important question is, when are these pupils going to have an opportunity to learn? How can encouragement be offered to those who have done well, and at the same time continue repetition of what is necessary with those who have accomplished but little?

The group plan is advised by many successful teachers. Assign pupils who have done well and who can practice in the right way to seats at the left of the room (“A” group) as the teacher faces the class, it being understood that those who prove themselves unworthy of being in the “A” group will have a place in the “B” group. After the segregation is complete and the plan under way it will be well to keep a check on the “A” group; some pupils forget quickly when left to themselves, while it develops independence and pride in others. The “B” group will occupy the rows to the right of the teacher as she faces the pupils, and by stepping to the extreme right side for the survey every hand may be seen while at work. The members of the “B” group understand that they are there because they need special help, and will be promoted as soon as they learn the lessons already mastered by the “A” group. At the beginning of every lesson a careful but brief review will be necessary of the points that the “B” group is expected to learn. The entire class should give attention at this time.

The “B” group is still preparing with the handle end of the pen while the “A” group will be actually making lines. Economy of time should be studied, or the period will be wasted; both groups must be kept busy all the time. The same count will answer for both divisions. Occasionally it will be well to give the “A” group a certain amount of work to accomplish and to note if it is done within the right time limit. They are to compare carefully with their models and also to work for improvement in the product without special instruction. The “B” group will not make so many exercises but their posture and movement will be growing stronger every lesson. In order that they may not become discouraged, it is well to let them make some of the exercises each day but the greater part of the time should be given over to rapid changes of relaxation, posture and movement until these essentials are thoroughly ingrained. The “B” group will be greatly helped by working at the board, to the same count that the “A” group uses at the seats. Once during the lesson allow the “B” group to rest and watch the “A” group work. The pupils in the “B” group will not cover as much subject matter as will the “A” since it is composed of the new pupils and those who have the greatest difficulties. No pupil should be promoted to the “A” group until he assumes correct posture in all written work and can make ovals, straight strokes and short words with correct movement. He must prove his ability as an independent worker and show reasonably good results in order to be considered an “A” pupil.

VISUALIZATION OF LETTER FORMS

It has been said, “The three arts of education are seeing, reading, thinking. The boy who learns to see is awakened; the boy who learns to read is enriched; the boy who learns to think is emancipated.” Why does not an artist always make a desirable and pleasing picture? Perhaps it is because he does not see the subject correctly or to advantage, or perhaps he has not mastered all the mechanical difficulties. It is for the teacher to decide whether all has been done that can be done to assist the pupils to see the model letter form correctly. Perhaps there exist mechanical difficulties in posture and movement that prevent a free execution of the letter form that may exist in the mind.

Pupils should understand that they are to educate the head and hand together. Concentration on correct forms goes hand in hand with practice. Some pupils have greater aptitude than others toward perception of form; it is certain that the hand will not learn to reproduce constantly a form that has not been fully and entirely idealized by the mind. It has been discovered that human beings vary greatly in the completeness, definiteness, and extent of their visual images. Pupils should be impressed through as many sense channels as possible. Some learn through explanations, others through demonstrations at the board, still others by working at the board themselves. Out of this variety of impressions each pupil will find the one that is most lasting for himself. Every penmanship teacher should recognize this principle of multiple impression.

Mental pictures are what we mean when we speak of “noticing” things. We think we are noticing all sorts of things during our waking hours; as a matter of fact, we recognize fewer things than we suppose. Ask a pupil to describe any familiar object and prove this statement. If you point out the various characteristics he will quickly see them, and will be likely in future trials to see them; but if left to himself he would need a great deal of time to become familiar with the main features. Frequent review of model letter forms is necessary, for it keeps our minds fresh and helps to reveal new and hitherto unthought-of aspects. Each view well considered, then put aside, freshens us for the next one. We are thus led to make trials and discover relations which otherwise would remain hidden. Many pupils, for the most part unsuccessful, never get so far as that. Many who fail believe that they have seen all there is to see, take up something else, or do nothing.

Pupils may be led to observe the forms of letters and their common characteristics through variations of common principles. To illustrate: many letters are modifications of the oval exercise, near or remote. In almost every writing system on the market we have four, the O, A, C, and E. Modifications of the straight stroke are more numerous still; then we have letters that show a combination and modification of the two exercises. Pupils should be able to see and describe just which stroke gives slant and character to the letter. There is a striking analogy in the beginning, ending, and width of many of our letters.

Very rarely is the image the exact reproduction of the percept; it differs in distinctness, outline, detail, and sometimes even in most important qualities. Look at the model letter, close the eyes, you will still see the form. Retentive and reproductive powers are at work, while the image is in process of formation. Form perception, and other mental pictures than what we are striving for, are present and act upon and modify present percepts.

Let the room be quiet, so quiet that there is nothing to distract. Require the pupils to lay their heads on the desks, shut their eyes, and rest, not for long, for fear of day dreams. Without allowing them to awake from their playsleep, picture in brief vivid statements, without repetition, or unnecessary detail, the parts of a letter. Raise the heads, open the eyes, take pens and ask pupils to reproduce a picture of the letter just described.

In effective visualization certain conditions must be fulfilled. In the first place the exposure must have lasted for a sufficient length of time, very much as is required in photography. We can gain no mental picture of things where the exposure is too brief.

A careful study of letter forms must engender the habit of observation and knowledge of the difference between accuracy and vagueness. Since penmanship is one of the manual arts it will be executed definitely right or definitely wrong. Chamberlain on the value of manual training says: “The more accurate the work in hand, the less likely is doubt and uncertainty to play a part. In grammar and history a mistake upon the pupil’s part may easily pass unchallenged. The student glides over an error unconsciously or without intent; and even the teacher may not detect the fault. In a word both the teacher and pupil are likely to be deceived. In the shop or in the cooking room it is quite different. Be the box too short, the metal too thick or too thin, the joint too loose, the basket askew, the stitches uneven, or the ingredients improper in proportion, little doubt need enter the pupil’s mind as to the rightness of his work.”

PRACTICE

A few years ago Dr. Gulick laid down the following hints on training for the boys in their athletic work in New York City:

1. Always warm up slowly and cool off gradually when finished.

2. Stop practice when you are exhausted.

3. Dress lightly for practice or competition.

4. Practice regularly, a little each day if possible.

5. Have regular hours for eating and sleeping.

6. Don’t smoke.

To a person who has the correct perspective on the penmanship habit the application of the hints enumerated will seem quite reasonable. To train in any line, one must practice. Repetition is necessary, and the time element essential, as it takes many efforts to accomplish the desired end, good penmanship. The muscles to be trained are large, and the conventional forms are small.

With a little forethought and planning the practice period may be varied, live and interesting. Everyone must learn, sooner or later, that much discipline may be gained by keeping steadily at work not interesting in itself. James says: “We have of late been learning much of the philosophy of tenderness in education; ‘interest’ must be assiduously awakened in everything, difficulties must be smoothed away. Soft pedagogics have taken the place of the old steep and rocky paths to learning. But from this lukewarm air the bracing oxygen of effort is left out. It is nonsense to suppose that every step in education can be interesting.”

Thoughtless practice might much better be left undone. There is no use in trying to excuse careless work to oneself with the thought, “I won’t count this time.” Each careless stroke is being registered though we do not count it; for nothing we ever do, strictly speaking, is ever wholly blotted out. Paths frequently and recently trodden are those that lie most open, and those which may be expected most easily to lead to results.

The first practice may be difficult, for the nervous and muscular systems have a new lesson to learn. The second and third trials will be easier, for the body has begun to recognize what lies before it. The following attempts will steadily become easier. A path means economy in traveling. The muscle should work with a fatalistic steadiness; if so, the result must necessarily be work done in a clean and finished manner.

To be concrete, let us presuppose a thirty minute practice period in muscular movement penmanship, under fairly favorable conditions. The desk should be adjusted for physical comfort. The light should come from the left side. Loose sheets of good quality paper eight by ten and one-half inches in size, with three-eighths inch spacing should be furnished. At least two sheets should be placed under the one being used, that the penpoint may be saved extra wear. A fluid ink that flows freely is best. A coarse, flexible pen, blotter, and ink-wiper complete the list of supplies. It is assumed that the adopted manual containing instructions and model letter forms is always on the desk for reference during the practice period.

Our first aim should be to get the mind and muscle into action. To this end at least two hundred two-space straight strokes or the same number of ovals should be made in one minute. Secondly, this will assist in the form building of the letter to be mastered, which let us assume is the capital O. A light smooth line will be obtained by limiting the amount of ink. Make at least two hundred strokes with one dip of ink. Correct speed will be best obtained by requiring the time limit in all drill work. Correct slant should develop as a result of the correct teaching of the straight stroke exercise.

Having done this preliminary drill we are now ready to consider the second point of the lesson, namely, the making of the letter O. The first consideration is the general form. By comparison with the model we find a striking analogy in width and slant, to the form of the oval. The ending stroke and the points that characterize the letter must be observed, and lastly, the size is to be noted. Close the eyes a moment and see if the image is fixed. Prepare to write by using the handle end of the penholder until the right rhythm has been established by counting one, two, for the first O; three, four, for the second O; five, six, for the third O; seven, eight, for the fourth O; nine, ten, for the fifth letter of the group. Five “make believe” letters is the result of this count; we can easily make three groups of five each, across the page. Time consumed will be one minute for sixty to seventy-five letters. When the muscular adjustment is perfected through this preparatory motion, then, and then, only, are the pupils ready to write. Write and compare with the model, time and again. If the letter has been visualized correctly, each child will be able to criticize his own work effectively. Glaring errors should be pointed out first and remedied. Work on this letter might occupy the main portion of the writing lesson for many days before passing to another letter form.

Any class that has been drilled correctly on the ovals, straight strokes and capital O should be able to apply the movement acquired to a short word and this perhaps forms the most important part of the lesson. For example take “Omen,” spelling the letters aloud, capital O-m-e-n. Words so dictated should be executed by junior high school pupils and adults at the rate of at least fifteen to eighteen per minute. This will prevent any possibility of a return to finger movement at this time. Dictation of letters is quite effective with slow pupils. The application of movement to a word, at the close of each lesson, will lead the pupils quite unconsciously into a better movement of all written work. Here they get the help along the lines necessary to steady and modify the movement, and a chance to get into the swing of actual writing without too much thought as regards the content. Such drill serves the same purpose in penmanship that scale practice does in music. The writing of words at the close of each lesson serves as the connecting link between the theoretical drill work and practical writing. Such daily drill work as just suggested at the close of the writing lesson will effectually eliminate the sharp line of demarcation between the drills and “real writing.” In a short time a list of words will be the result, and these with others may be combined into sentences. The supplementary words given should incorporate all the small letters of the alphabet; the one-space letters first, thirteen in all, then the loops above the line, b, f, h, k, and l; loops below the line, g, j, y, and z; and lastly, those irregular in height, p, t, q, and d. A fair allotment of time for the above suggestive plan would be five to ten minutes on ovals and strokes; ten to fifteen minutes on the letter O; and five to ten minutes on the word-practice.

The group plan seems to be the only logical method of reaching all pupils with the instruction necessary to their peculiar needs. The advanced group will be learning to act independently, while the other will be learning basic principles. Friendly criticism and rivalry should be fostered, by comparing the method by which results were obtained. Let one group watch the other work. Let the group watching count for the other and change about. Generally, the entire class work, if any, should be posted, unless it be known that a certain page is posted because of its special merit. Pupils should be taught at the outset that team work in a drill subject is what counts and should take proper pride in good work as a class. Every class will produce a few good writers. In many schools a new lesson is not taken up before seventy-five per cent of the pupils have accomplished the preceding lesson well according to standards previously agreed upon. It is often impossible for all members of a class to attain perfection in penmanship. We do not demand that in other subjects.

APPLICATION OF THE CORRECT HABITS TO DAILY REQUIREMENTS

The muscular movement writing habit should become automatic when pupils have developed enough skill through exercises to apply the movement consistently to all written work. The best skilled teachers might give a lesson daily in any grade, but unless the principles inculcated during that lesson are followed conscientiously during the remaining periods of the day the gain will be slight. If time is allotted for practice the result is surely worth applying to all written exercises. The Committee of Fifteen appointed to investigate the coordination of studies in primary and grammar grades propounded the question, “Has penmanship distinct pedagogical value?” The following is one of the best answers: “Penmanship as an art is but pen drawing, as a factor in education it should be taught more frequently in connection with other studies. Both penmanship and drawing suffer much from their isolated position in the school course. We therefore need to teach writing while teaching other subjects and the reverse.”

In grounding the movement application habit we may well follow these maxims:

First, focalize the attention of the pupils on the habit to be acquired. Teach definitely relaxation, posture, movement, and visualization.

Maxim number two tells us to suffer no exception to occur until the new habit is firmly rooted in our lives.

Number three calls for frequent repetition. We must therefore give daily drill on the points that go to make up the correct writing habit.

Fourthly, “Don’t preach too much.” Lie in wait for the practical opportunities, and get the pupils at once both to think and to act. Such opportunities are never lacking, since so many lessons are conducted through the medium of the pen.

Lastly, keep the faculty of personal effort alive by a little gratuitous exercise every day. After a high degree of perfection has been reached it is maintained only by the follow-up system of daily effort directed toward the retention of the habit.

The habit of movement application demands vigorous and continued effort; the exertion may possibly be so great that the pupil is temporarily more discommoded than by his former habit. If the wise course is pursued the old disability will vanish, a new path will be made in the brain, and application of movement will be established.

The main problem with every teacher is how to assist pupils in linking up the principles that have been mastered, namely, correct posture, and movement applied to drills and short words with the practical writing. The drill on short words will prove as valuable as any other part of this theory work. By the laws of association, pupils will connect the muscular sensation of the short, rapidly written word, with what is required when a variety of longer words or sentences is dictated.

At the beginning of every lesson in which writing is used as a vehicle for thought, attention to the correct habit will be the means of setting many pupils right, and of increasing from week to week the number of those who do all writing with muscular movement. Finally, all incorrect movement will be eliminated, and we may then return to visualization. A proper balance must be preserved in regard to seeing and doing, or our results will be one sided. When a pupil “finds” himself with reference to the application of movement problem, attention may be almost equally divided between retention of that movement and form building. By the time form is established movement will be second nature, and with a little continuous practice will never be lost.

It is time to require all written work to be done with muscular movement when pupils can make good two-space ovals, four hundred across an eight inch page, and straight strokes in the same manner; have visualized one capital letter and can make it at the right speed per minute, for example, sixty to eighty O’s per minute; and can write short words such as “men” and “mine” with correct movement, in correct posture, and within the correct space limit. An easy way to begin is to require application to the subjects where the mind is least concerned as to the content, for example, the spelling lesson.

If pupils have been taught to turn the searchlight of investigation on their own habits they will be entirely conscious of the feeling of mastery that takes possession when muscular movement becomes automatic.

Those who have not thus succeeded should look well into the basic principles of relaxation, correct posture, and movement, especially as applied to letters and short words. Study the hand and arm in its preparatory motion while working at the correct speed. Care should be exercised that there be no movements of the joints of the wrist, thumb or fingers. Alternate the preparatory motion with writing until the sensation of mastery prevails.