Mace.
Latin—Macis; French—Macis; German—Muscatblüthe.
This substance is the dried arillus covering the fruits of Myristica fragrans, the so-called nutmegs. The tree bearing them is indigenous to a group of islands in the Indian Archipelago and is cultivated especially on the Molucca islands. Although mace is in such close relation with nutmeg, yet, strange to say, the aromatic substance differs decidedly from that of the nut. Mace of good quality forms pieces of orange-yellow color; they are fleshy, usually slit open on one side, have a strong odor, tear with difficulty, and are so oily that when crushed they stain the fingers brownish-yellow. Mace is largely used in the preparation of sachets and particularly for scenting soap. In England, soap scented with mace is well liked.
Magnolia.
Latin—Magnolia grandiflora; French—Magnolia; German—Magnoliablüthen.
The magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), indigenous to the warmer parts of South, Central, and North America, bears large white flowers having a delightful odor which can be extracted by means of petroleum ether. In the same way, truly intoxicating perfumes may be obtained from other varieties of magnolia. In our climate these plants flourish only in conservatories, and in their home no steps have yet been taken to utilize these natural treasures in a proper way; hence European manufacturers invariably produce the perfume called magnolia by combination of different odors.
Marjoram.
Latin—Herba majoranæ; French—Marjolaine; German—Majorankraut.
This plant, Origanum Majorana (vulgare), frequently cultivated in kitchen gardens, possesses in all its parts a strong odor due to an essential oil. The latter, which is quite expensive, is but little used, and probably only for culinary purposes.
“Oil of Origanum” in English-speaking countries is intended to mean Oil of Thyme (from Thymus vulgaris), and never means Oil of Marjoram.
Meadow Sweet.
Latin—Spiræa ulmaria; French—Reine des prés; German—Spierstaude.
This plant is frequent in Europe on damp meadows, and contains an aromatic substance closely allied to oil of wintergreen, which occurs also in the Canadian variety.
Mint.
Latin—Mentha; French—Menthe; German—Minze.
The varieties of mint claiming our attention are the following: Mentha piperita, Peppermint (French: Menthe poivrée; German: Pfefferminze).—Mentha viridis, Spearmint (French: Menthe verte; German: Grüne Minze).—Mentha crispa, Crisp Mint (French: Menthe crépue [or frisée]; German: Krause Minze).
All of the mints have a pleasant odor; besides the plants named above, we may mention Mentha aquatica, whose odor faintly but distinctly recalls that of musk. Like lavender, Mentha crispa and M. piperita are cultivated particularly in England, and the English oils are the most superior. Mentha piperita is also largely cultivated in the United States. Mentha viridis and its oil are almost exclusively confined to this country.
Musk-Seed.
Latin—Semen Abelmoschi; French—Grains d’ambrette;
German—Bisamkörner.
The tree, Hibiscus Abelmoschus, indigenous to Africa and India, bears fruit capsules containing reddish-gray seeds with grooved surface, so-called musk-seeds. They have an odor resembling musk, but much weaker, though it becomes more pronounced when the seeds are bruised. Besides this species of Hibiscus, other plants belonging to the same order are aromatic and are also used in perfumery.
Myrrh.
Latin—Myrrha; French—Myrrhe; German—Myrrhe.
The gum-resin which we call myrrh has long been known in the East, where it was celebrated as one of the finest perfumes, along with spikenard and frankincense. The tree, Balsamodendron Myrrha (or Commiphora Myrrha Engler) is indigenous to the countries bordering the Red Sea to about 22° N. Lat.; the gum exudes partly spontaneously from the trunk. In European commerce myrrh appears in different sorts; that called myrrha electa or myrrha in lacrimis is the most precious; it forms tears of a golden yellow to brown color, traversed by white veins; they have a pleasant smell. That called myrrha naturalis is inferior, but on being heated develops the characteristic aroma. In commerce a product is sometimes offered by the name of myrrh which is nothing but cherry-tree gum scented with genuine myrrh.
Myrtle Leaves.
Latin—Myrtus communis; French—Myrte; German—Myrtenblätter.
The leaves of this Southern European plant diffuse a pleasant odor; the oil to which it is due can be extracted by distillation; yet the perfumes usually called myrtle are not obtained from the plant, but are made by the combination of several aromatic substances. The aromatic water known, especially in France, as “eau d’anges” is obtained by the distillation of myrtle leaves with water.
Narcissus.
Latin—Narcissus poeticus; French—Narcisse; German—Narcissenblüthen.
The blossoms of this favorite garden plant, which is cultivated on a large scale near Nice, have a pleasant, almost narcotic odor which may be extracted in various ways; though the greatest part of the so-called narcissus perfumes are made artificially.
Another species of Narcissus (Narcissus Jonquilla) is frequently cultivated in warm countries for its pleasant scent; but the perfumes generally found in the market under the name of Extract, etc., of Jonquil are artificial compounds.
Nutmeg.
Latin—Myristica; French—Muscade; German—Muscatnüsse.
These nuts are almost spherical in shape, the size of a small walnut, of a grayish-brown color externally, and usually coated with a faint whitish-gray covering (which is lime). Internally they are reddish-brown, with white marbled spots. Good fresh nutmegs should be dense, heavy, and so oily that when pierced with a needle a drop of oil should follow the withdrawal of the latter. Nuts which are hollow, wormy, and of a faint odor cannot be used in perfumery. Oil of nutmeg is used extensively in perfumery, but is rarely employed pure, more commonly in combination with other strong odors.
Olibanum.
Latin—Olibanum; French—Encens; German—Weihrauch.
This gum-resin, employed even by the ancient civilized nations of Asia, especially as incense for religious purposes, comes from East African trees, various species of Boswellia. Fine olibanum appears in light yellow tears, very transparent and hard, whose pleasant though faint odor becomes particularly marked when it is thrown on hot coals. In perfumery olibanum is used almost exclusively for pastils, fumigating powders, etc. Pulverulent olibanum constitutes an inferior quality and is often adulterated with pine resin.
Opopanax.
Latin—Resina Opopanax.
The root stock of an umbelliferous plant, indigenous in Syria, now recognized at Balsamodendron Kafal, furnishes a yellow milky sap containing an aromatic resin with an odor resembling that of gum ammoniacum. At least the opopanax now obtainable in the market is derived from this source. True opopanax resin, such as used to reach the market formerly, is now unobtainable, and its true source is yet unknown. Opopanax oil is used in perfumery to some extent.
Orange Flowers.
Latin—Flores Aurantii; French—Fleurs d’oranges; German—Orangenblüthen.
The flowers of the bitter orange tree (Citrus vulgaris), as well as those of the sweet (Citrus Aurantium), contain very fragrant essential oils, which differ in flavor and value according to their source and mode of preparation. See below, under Oil of Orange. The leaves, too, contain a peculiar oil used in perfumery.
Orange Peel.
Latin—Cortex Aurantii; French—Ecorce d’oranges; German—Orangenschalen.
The very oily rinds of the orange occur in commerce in a dried form; such peels, however, can be used only in the manufacture of liqueurs; in perfumery nothing but the oil from the fresh rinds is employed, and this is generally obtained by pressure.
Origanum.
See Marjoram, and Thyme.
Orris Root.
Latin—Radix Iridis florentinæ; French—Iris; German—Veilchenwurzel.
The Florentine sword-lily, Iris florentina, which often grows wild in Italy but is largely cultivated, has a creeping root-stock covered with a brown bark which, however, is peeled from the fresh root. Orris root occurs in commerce in whitish pieces which are sometimes forked; the surface is knotty, and the size may reach the thickness of a thumb and the length of a finger. When fresh, the roots have a disagreeable sharp odor, but on drying they attain an odor which may be said to resemble that of the violet; but on comparing the two odors immediately, a considerable difference is perceptible even to the untrained olfactory sense. Orris root should be as fresh as possible; this may be recognized by its toughness, the great weight, and the white, not yellow color on fracture. It is very frequently used for sachets and for fixing other odors.
Palm Oil.
Latin—Oleum Palmæ; French—Huile de Palme; German—Palmöl.
Palm oil, a fixed oil derived from Elais guineensis, possesses a peculiar odor faintly recalling that of violets which is easily extracted. Although not used thus far in perfumery, personal experiments have convinced the author that the odor can be employed in the manufacture of cheap perfumes.
Patchouly.
Latin—Pogostemon Patchouly; French—Patchouly; German—Patschulikraut.
This herb, indigenous to the East Indies and China, in appearance somewhat resembling our garden sage, is used in the countries named as one of the most common perfumes; many East Indian and Chinese goods (such as Cashmere shawls, India ink, etc.) owe their peculiar odor to the patchouly herb which is very productive. In this respect it can be compared only with the nutmeg, but exceeds even this in intensity. This herb is not known very long in Europe, but at present it is imported in large quantities from India; in commerce it occurs in small bundles consisting of stems and leaves (collected before flowering).
Peru Balsam.
Latin—Balsamum peruvianum; French—Beaume du Pérou;
German—Perubalsam.
This balsam, imported from Central America (San Salvador), is derived from Toluifera Pereiræ; incisions are made in the bark and trunk of the tree, from which the balsam exudes. Peru balsam is of a syrupy consistence, thick and viscid, brownish-red in thin, blackish-brown in thick layers. Its taste is pungent, sharp, and bitter, afterward acrid; its odor is somewhat smoky, but agreeable and balsamic. Peru balsam is often sophisticated with fixed oil; this can be readily detected by agitation with alcohol, by which the oil is separated. But if castor oil is the adulterant, this test is not applicable, as castor oil dissolves with equal facility in alcohol.
Pine-apple.
Latin—Bromelia Ananas; French—Ananas; German—Ananas.
The fruits of this plant, originally derived from the East Indies, have a well-known narcotic odor which can be extracted from them.
In commerce we often meet with a chemical product called pine-apple ether which will be described at greater length under the head of chemical products used in perfumery. Pine-apple ether has an odor usually considered to be like that of the fruit, but when the two substances are immediately compared a great difference will be detected. Pine-apple ether finds quite extensive application in confectionery for the preparation of lemonades, punch, ices, etc. If the true pine-apple odor is to be prepared from the fruits, care must be had to use ripe fruits; the unripe or overripe fruits possess a less delicate aroma.
Pink.
Latin—Dianthus Caryophyllus; French—Œillet; German—Nelkenblüthen.
The odor of this favorite garden plant can be easily extracted from the flowers by means of petroleum ether; but the genuine odor of pink is hardly ever met with in perfumery; the preparations sold under this name being usually artificial mixtures of other odors.
Plumeria.
Latin—Plumeria; French—Plumeria; German—Plumeriablüthen.
All the Plumerias, indigenous to the Antilles, contain very fragrant odors in their flowers. To the best of our knowledge, these odors have not yet been extracted from the flowers, and all the perfumes sold under this name (sometimes also called Frangipanni) are merely combinations of different odors.
Reseda (Mignonette).
Latin—Reseda odorata; French—Mignonette; German—Reseda.
This herbaceous plant, probably indigenous to northern Africa, but long domesticated in Europe and cultivated in gardens, is well known for its refreshing odor. The latter, however, is very difficult to extract and is yielded only to the method of absorption (enfleurage). The true odor of reseda, owing to the mode of its preparation, is very expensive, and for this reason nearly all perfumes sold under this name are produced from other aromatic substances.
Rhodium.
Latin—Lignum Rhodii; French—Bois de rose; German—Rosenholz.
This is derived from two climbing plants, Convolvulus scoparius and Convolvulus floridus, indigenous to the Canary islands, and is the root wood of these plants. Its odor resembles that of the rose, and the wood is frequently used for cheap sachets and for the extraction of the contained essential oil which was formerly (before oil of rose geranium was made on the large scale) employed for the adulteration of genuine oil of rose.
Rose.
Latin—Rosa; French—Rose; German—Rosenblüthen.
Horticulture has produced innumerable varieties from wild species of roses, which differ in size, form, color, as well as in odor. We instance here only the various odors exhaled by tea roses and moss roses. Accordingly, perfumers likewise distinguish different odors of roses. Cultivated on a large scale exclusively for the extraction of the essential oil, we find different varieties of roses in India, in European Turkey (Rosa Damascena), in Persia, and in Southern France. In this country (U. S.), too, oil of roses could be manufactured with advantage.
The wild rose, sweet brier, French églantine, possesses a delicate but very fugitive odor, and therefore the perfume sold as wild rose is usually prepared from other substances with the addition of oil of roses. The same remark applies to the odor called “white rose” and to those sold as “tea rose,” “moss rose,” etc.
Rosemary.
Latin—Rosmarinus officinalis; French—Romarin; German—Rosmarin.
This plant, indigenous to Southern and Central Europe, contains pretty large quantities of an aromatic oil in its leaves and flowers; the oil has a refreshing odor and therefore is frequently added in small amounts to fine perfumes.
Rue.
Latin—Ruta graveolens; French—Rue; German—Raute.
This plant, cultivated in our gardens and also growing wild here, has long been employed for its strong odor; in perfumery rue, in a dry state as well as its oil, is occasionally used.
Sage.
Latin—Salvia officinalis; French—Sauge; German—Salbei.
All varieties of sage, the one named being found most frequently growing wild in the meadows of Southern Europe, and extensively cultivated in Europe and in this country, possess a very agreeable, refreshing odor which adheres for a long time even to the dried leaves; these are therefore very suitable for sachets, tooth powders, etc.
Santal Wood.
Latin—Santalum album; French—Santal; German—Santalholz.
The tree from which this wood is derived is indigenous to Eastern Asia, to the Sunda Islands. The wood is soft, very fragrant, and is also erroneously called sandal wood. The latter is of a dark reddish-brown color, not fragrant, and is derived from Pterocarpus santalinus, a tree indigenous to Southern India, and the Philippine Islands; it is of value to the dyer and the cabinet-maker, but to the perfumer only for coloring some tinctures. For the purposes of perfumery use can be made only of santal wood (white or yellow santal wood) which possesses a very pleasant odor resembling that of oil of rose. Formerly essential oil of santal was employed for the adulteration of oil of rose. White and yellow santal wood comes from the same tree—the former from the smaller trunks of Santalum album.
Sassafras.
Latin—Lignum Sassafras; French—Sassafras; German—Sassafrasholz.
Sassafras wood, derived from the root of the American tree Sassafras officinalis, appears in commerce in large bundles. It has a strong peculiar odor; in the bark of the root the odor is even more marked. In the European drug trade Sassafras saw dust is also met with, but this is not rarely mixed with pine saw dust which has been moistened with fennel water and again dried. In perfumery sassafras wood is less used for the manufacture of volatile odors than for scenting soap. Since the principal constituent of oil of sassafras, viz., safrol, has been found to be contained in the crude oil of Japanese camphor, the latter has to a very large extent taken the place of the natural oil.
Spikenard.
Latin—Nardostachys Jatamansi; French—Spic-nard; German—Nardenkraut.
This plant, belonging to the Order of Valerianaceæ, which generally possess a strong and more or less unpleasant odor, forms one of the main objects of Oriental perfumery; in the East Indies, where the plant grows wild on the mountains, the odor is held about in the same estimation as that of roses, violets, etc., in Europe. Spikenard was probably known to the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, for in the Bible, in the Song of Solomon, we find this plant repeatedly mentioned and praised for its pleasant odor. As the odor of spikenard is not appreciated in Europe, the plant is rarely met with in commerce. All parts of the plant are aromatic, but use is chiefly made of the root, consisting of fine fibres which are tied in bundles the thickness of a finger.
Star-Anise.
Latin—Illicium; Semen Anisi stellati; French—Badiane; German—Sternanis.
Star-anise occurs in commerce in the form of eight-chambered capsules, each compartment containing one glossy seed, and is derived from a Chinese tree, Illicium anisatum. The fruits are brown, woody; the seed has a sweetish taste and an odor resembling that of anise. Outside of perfumery star-anise is used in the manufacture of liqueurs. Recently a drug has appeared in commerce under the name of star-anise which possesses poisonous qualities, and is derived from another variety of Illicium (Illicium religiosum). While this may be of no consequence to the perfumer, it is important to the manufacturer of liqueurs who always uses star-anise for fine goods and never oil of anise.
Storax.
Latin—Styrax; French—Styrax; German—Storax.
This product which belongs among the balsams is derived from a small tree, Liquidambar orientalis, and is obtained from the bark by heating with water, and also by pressure. It forms a viscid mass like turpentine, has a gray color, a burning sharp taste, an agreeable odor, and is easily soluble in strong alcohol; but the odor becomes pleasant only after the solution is highly diluted. Storax has the peculiar property of binding different, very delicate odors, to render them less fugitive, and for this reason finds frequent application in perfumery.
Oriental storax should not be confounded with American storax which occurs in commerce under the name of Sweet Gum, Gum Wax, or Liquidamber, and is derived from Liquidambar styraciflua. It is quite a thick transparent liquid, light yellow, gradually becoming more and more solid and darker colored, but is often used in place of the former, though its odor is less fine.
Sumbul Root.
Latin—Radix Sumbul; French—Soumboul; German—Moschuswurzel.
The Sumbul plant (Ferula Sumbul), indigenous to Turkestan and adjoining countries, has a light brown root covered with thin fibres, which has a penetrating odor of musk. Owing to this quality it is frequently employed in perfumery, especially for sachets. In commerce a distinction is made between East Indian and Bokharian or Russian sumbul, due to the different routes by which the article arrives. The latter, which possesses the strongest odor, probably because it reaches the market in a fresher state, is the most valuable.
Sweet Almonds.
Latin—Amygdala dulcis; French—Amandes douces; German—Süsse
Mandeln.
The almond-tree, Amygdalus communis, occurs in two varieties, undistinguishable by botanical characteristics. One bears sweet, the other bitter fruits (comp. Bitter almonds, page 24). Both are odorless and contain much fixed oil. The special odor of bitter almonds forms only in consequence of the decomposition of a peculiar body (amygdalin), present in bitter almonds, when it comes in contact with water. Good almonds are full, juicy, light brown, without wrinkles, and have a sweet mild taste. A rancid taste characterizes staleness. The fixed or expressed oil, both that of the sweet and that of the bitter almonds (which are identical in taste, odor, and other properties), is used in perfumery for fine hair oils, ointments, and some fine soft soaps.
Sweet-Flag Root.
Latin—Radix Calami; French—Racine de glaïeule; German—Calmuswurzel.
The calamus root met with in commerce is the creeping root-stock of a plant (Acorus Calamus), occurring in all countries of the northern hemisphere, and frequent in European and American swamps. The root-stock is spongy, about as thick as a finger, many-jointed, and of a yellowish color, with many dark streaks and dots. Inside the color is reddish-white. The odor is strong and the taste sharp and burning.
Sweet-Pea.
Latin—Lathyrus tuberosus; French—Pois de senteur; German—Platterbsenblüthen.
Sweet-pea flowers, which have a very delicate odor, yield it to the usual solvents. The odor bears some resemblance to that of orange flowers, but is rarely used alone; it is generally combined with others to make it more lasting.
Syringa.
Latin—Philadelphus coronarius; French—Seringat, Lilac;
German—Pfeifenstrauchblüthen.
The white flowers of this garden bush have a very pleasant odor which resembles that of orange flowers, in place of which it can be used, in the cheaper grades of perfumery. This plant which flourishes freely in our climate deserves more attention by perfumers than it has hitherto received, since it appears to furnish an excellent substitute for the expensive oil of orange flowers, as above stated, in cheap perfumes.
Thyme.
Latin—Thymus Serpyllum; French—Thym; German—Thymian.
This well-known aromatic plant, which grows most luxuriantly on a calcareous soil, has an odor which is not unpleasant but is in greater demand for liqueurs than for perfumes. Here and there, however, it is employed for scenting soap. Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is used for the same purposes.
Under the name of Oil of Thyme, in the English and American market, is generally understood the oil of Thymus vulgaris, which is largely distilled in the South of France. This oil is commonly misnamed Oil of Origanum.
Tolu Balsam.
Latin—Balsamum tolutanum; French—Beaume de Tolu; German—Tolubalsam.
This balsam is derived from a tree indigenous to the northern portion of South America, Toluifera Balsamum, belonging to the Order of Leguminosæ. The balsam, which is obtained by incisions into the bark of these trees, is at first fluid, but becomes firm in the air owing to rapid resinification; in commerce it appears in a viscid form ranging from that of Venice turpentine to that of colophony. Its color varies from honey-yellow to reddish-brown; the taste is at first sweet, then sharp, it softens under the heat of the hand, and when warmed or sprinkled in powder form on glowing coals it diffuses a very pleasant odor recalling that of Peru balsam or vanilla. It shares with storax and Peru balsam the valuable property of fixing volatile odors and is often employed for this purpose, but is also frequently used alone in fumigating powders, tooth powders, etc. Adulteration of Tolu balsam with Venice turpentine or colophony is not rarely met with.
Tonka Beans.
Latin—Fabæ Tonkæ; French—Fèves de Tonka; German—Tonkabohnen,
Tonkasamen.
The South American tonka tree, Dipteryx odorata, bears almond-shaped drupes almost as long as the finger, which contain seeds two to four centimetres in length, the so-called tonka beans. These occur in European commerce in two sorts, the so-called Dutch and English tonka beans; the former are large, full, covered externally with a folded brown to black skin, and white inside. The latter are barely two-thirds the size of the former, almost black, and less glossy. The odor of the tonka bean is due to a volatile crystalline substance, coumarin, which often lies on the surface and in the wrinkles of the bean in the form of delicate, brilliant crystalline needles. Coumarin exists also in many other plants, for instance, in sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), deer-tongue (Liatris odoratissima), etc.
Tuberose.
Latin—Polianthus tuberosa; French—Tubérose; German—Tuberose.
This beautiful and very fragrant plant is frequently cultivated in Southern France; its pleasant odor, however, owing to its great volatility, can never be used pure, but must always be fixed with one of the above-mentioned balsams. As has been stated in connection with several aromatic plants, tuberose could be grown in our southern States with advantage for the extraction of its odor.
Vanilla.
Latin—Vanilla aromatica, Vanilla planifolia; French—Vanille;
German—Vanille.
The vanilla, which may justly be called a king among aromatic plants, is a climbing orchid indigenous to tropical America. It is cultivated on a most extensive scale on the islands of Reunion and Mauritius; largely also in Mexico, and in some other countries. The agreeable odor is present in the fruit. These form three-lobed capsules about the length of a lead pencil and the thickness of a quill. Externally they are glossy brown, have a fatty feel, and show in the depression a white powder which appears crystalline under a lens. Internally good fresh vanilla is so oily that it stains the fingers on being crushed and is filled with numerous shining seeds the size of a small pin’s head. These properties, together with the plump appearance and great weight, mark good qualities. Old vanilla, whose odor is fainter and less fragrant, may be recognized by its wrinkled surface, the absence of the white dust, the slight weight, and the bent ends of the capsules. Fraudulent dealers endeavor to give such old goods a fresher appearance by coating them with almond oil or Peru balsam. “Vanilla de Leg” is recognized as the first quality of Mexican vanilla. Like most odors, that of vanilla does not become pleasant until it is sufficiently diluted.
Verbena.
Latin—Verbena triphylla, Aloysia citriodora; French—Verveine;
German—Verbenakraut.
The leaves of this Peruvian plant, especially on being rubbed between the fingers, exhale a very pleasant odor which is due to an essential oil. The odor resembles that of fine citrons, or rather that of lemon grass; hence these two odors are frequently mistaken for each other. Owing to the high price of true oil of verbena, all the perfumes sold under this name are prepared from oil of lemon grass (see under Citronella) and other essential oils.
Vetiver.
Latin—Andropogon muricatus; French—Vétyver; German—Vetiverwurzel.
Vetiver, also called cuscus, and sometimes iwarankusa (though this is more properly the name of Andropogon lanifer; see above, under Citronella), is the fibrous root-stock of a grass indigenous to India, where fragrant mats are woven from it. The odor of the root somewhat resembles that of santal wood, and is used partly alone, partly for fixing volatile perfumes. Shavings of the root are frequently employed for filling sachet bags.
Violet.
Latin—Viola odorata; French—Violette; German—Veilchenblüthen.
The wonderful fragrance of the March violet is due to an essential oil which it is, however, difficult to extract. For this reason genuine perfume of violets, really prepared from the flowers, is among the most expensive odors, and the high-priced so-called violet perfumes are generally mixtures of other fine odors, while the cheaper grades are made from orris root.
Volkameria.
This plant, Volkameria inermis, often cultivated in conservatories, has a very agreeable odor. The perfume called by this name, however, is not obtained from the plant, but is produced by the mixture of several aromatic extracts from other plants.
Wallflower.
Latin—Cheiranthus Cheiri; French—Giroflé; German—Levkojenblüthen,
Goldlack.
The wallflower, a well-known biennial garden plant belonging to the Order of Cruciferæ, according to recent experiments yields a very fine odor to certain substances and may be employed in the manufacture of quite superior perfumes. The preparations usually sold as wallflower, however, are not made from the flowers of this plant, but are mixtures of different odors.
Wintergreen.
Latin—Gaultheria procumbens; French—Gaulthérie; German—Wintergrünblätter.
This herbaceous plant, indigenous to North America, especially Canada and the Northern and Middle United States, where it grows wild in large quantities, has a very pleasant odor due to an essential oil and a compound ether which can also be produced artificially. The odor of wintergreen serves chiefly for scenting fine soaps.
Ylang-Ylang.
This plant, Unona odoratissima, indigenous to the Philippine Islands, contains an exceedingly fragrant oil. It is brought into commerce from Manilla.
Owing to climatic relations, it is impossible for the perfumer to procure all the above-enumerated substances in the fresh state; many of them he is forced to purchase through the drug trade, and he should bear in mind to give the preference always to the freshest obtainable goods. At times it is not possible to utilize the materials at once for the extraction of the odors and they must be kept for some time. The vegetable substances should always be stored in an airy, not over dry room; and the material should be often inspected. If a trace of mouldiness shows itself, the material must be worked at once, since, if the mould is allowed to go on, the fragrance will suffer and may be destroyed altogether.
The aromatic substances here enumerated are those which have actually found general employment in perfumery; but the list is not complete, since every aromatic plant can be used for the extraction of its odor. Of course, this is connected with some difficulties, but even in the present state of our knowledge they can all be overcome. When a new odor has been prepared, the art of the perfumer consists in ascertaining by many experiments those substances which harmonize with it; for with few exceptions the finest grades of perfumes are not single odors but combinations of several which are in accord.
Even among our domestic plants there are numerous finds to be made by the perfumer, and in this respect we refer particularly to some very fragrant kinds of orchids in our woods and to the delightful odor of the lily of the valley. As to the latter, a perfume is met with in commerce under this name, but its odor bears no resemblance to that of the flower.
A few facts appear to us of especial importance. In practical perfumery many of the plants which are easily obtainable in large quantities, such as the flowers of clover and trefoil, the primrose, the rock-rose (Daphne Cneorum), dame’s-violet (Hesperis matronalis), and others above named, have never been employed. As an actual curiosity we may state that there is thus far no perfume containing the delightful odor present in the flowers of the linden-tree, of the Robinia (erroneously called Acacia), of the lilac, etc., at least not made from the plants here named.
CHAPTER V.
THE ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED IN PERFUMERY.
While the vegetable kingdom offers us an abundance of aromatic odors the end of which it is impossible to foresee, the animal kingdom contains absolutely no substance which may be called sweet-scented in the strict sense of the term. If we find nevertheless a few animal substances generally used in perfumery, they should be considered rather as excellent means for fixing subtle vegetable odors than as fragrant bodies in the true sense. By themselves, indeed, they have an odor, but to most persons it is not agreeable even if properly diluted. Thus far only five substances of animal origin are employed in perfumery, namely: ambergris, castor, hyraceum, musk, and civet.
Ambergris.
Latin—Ambra grisea; French—Ambregris; German—Ambra.
This is a substance whose origin is still doubtful; many facts indicate that it is a secretion—whether normal or morbid may be left undecided—of the largest living mammal, namely, of the pot-whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Ambergris is found in the intestines of this animal or, more frequently, floating about in the sea; the shores of the continents bordering the Indian Ocean furnish the largest amount of this peculiar substance.
Ambergris is a grayish-white fatty substance which occurs in commerce in pieces of various sizes—those as large as a fist are rare—of a penetrating, decidedly disagreeable odor. It is soluble in alcohol, and when properly diluted the odor becomes pleasant and it is so permanent that a piece of linen moistened with it smells of it even after being washed with soap. By itself, ambergris is not much used; it finds its chief application in combination with other odors or as an addition to some perfumes in order to make them lasting.
Castor.
Latin—Castoreum; French—Castoreum; German—Castoreum.
This is a secretion of the beaver (Castor fiber); it accumulates in two pear-shaped bags on the abdomen of the animal, both male and female. The hunters remove these bags from the body of the dead animal and in this form they are brought into commerce. These sacs are the length of a finger, at the thickest point the diameter of a thumb, and contain a greasy mass of yellowish-brown, reddish-brown, or blackish color, according to the nourishment of the animal. This mass constitutes castor; it has a strong, disagreeable odor, a bitter, balsamic taste, becomes soft when heated, is combustible, and almost entirely soluble in alcohol. It is probable that this secretion in its composition has some relation to the nourishment of the beavers which feed by preference on resinous vegetable substances. In commerce Canadian and Siberian castor are distinguished; the latter is more valuable and has almost disappeared from the market. It possesses a peculiar tarry, Russian-leather odor, probably due to a substance present in birch bark, upon which the Siberian animals feed almost exclusively. Canadian castor has an odor more nearly resembling pine resin. In perfumery castor is rarely used, usually only for fixing other odors.
Hyraceum.
The substance occurring in commerce under this name, the excrement of an animal found in Capeland, the rock badger or rock rabbit (Hyrax capensis), is very similar in its properties to castor, and according to comparative experiments made by us can be used in place of the latter.
Musk.
Latin—Moschus; French—Musc; German—Moschus.
Of animal substances, musk is most frequently used in perfumery, and possesses the most agreeable odor of them all. Moreover, the odor of musk is the most intense that we know, actually imponderable quantities of it being sufficient to impart to a large body of air the strong odor of musk. This substance is derived from a deer which attains the size of a small goat and, like the chamois of the Alps, lives on the highest mountains of the Himalayas. Only the male animal (Moschus moschiferus) produces musk, which is secreted in a sac or rather gland near the sexual organ. Musk being subject to the worst adulterations owing to its high price, we append a description of the substance as well as of the sac or bag in which it appears in commerce.
The musk bag cut by the hunter from the body of the animal has the size and shape of half a walnut. On the side by which it was attached to the body of the animal it is membranous and nearly smooth; on the external surface it is more or less hemispherical and covered with light brown or dark brown hair, according to the season at which the animal was killed. The hair assumes a circular arrangement around an opening situated in the centre of the bag. This opening, the efferent duct of the gland, is formed by a ring-shaped muscle which yields to the pressure of a pointed object and permits the introduction of the point of the finger. Internally the musk bag consists of several layers of membrane which surround the musk itself. It is probable that the musk is secreted by these membranes, for when the animal is dissected, no direct communication of the musk gland with the body can be detected.
It has been surmised that the secretion of musk bears some relation to the food; at least it has been asserted that the animals eat, among other things, sumbul root with great avidity; and this root, it will be remembered, has a very intense odor of musk. However, though this appears probable at first sight, it is contradicted by the fact that the females and the young males likewise eat the root without manifesting any odor of musk nor do they secrete the substance, while the older males produce it even when they are fed with hay only. Another fact is of interest, namely, that other ruminants, too, for instance, cattle, diffuse a marked though faint odor of musk which occurs also in their excrements, exactly as in the case of the musk deer. Alligators likewise produce a musk-like substance which has actually been made use of in place of musk for coarser purposes.
The musk present in the glands differs in appearance with the season and the age of the animal. Musk deers killed in spring have in their musk bag an unctuous soft mass of a reddish-brown color with the strongest odor; at other seasons the mass is darker in color, almost black, and granular; the size of the grains ranges from that of a millet-seed to that of a large pea.
That the secretion of musk belongs to the sexual functions appears probable from the fact that it can be found only in the bags of males more than two years old; that of younger animals contains only a substance of a milky consistence, whose odor has no resemblance to that of musk. The quantity of musk present in a bag varies with the season and the age of the animal; the smallest quantity may be assumed at about six drachms, though some bags contain as much as one and a half ounces.
The hunters dry the bags either on hot stones or in the air, or they dip them into hot oil. In commerce musk occurs either in bags under the name moschus in vesicis, “musk in pods,” or free, moschus in granis, moschus ex vesicis, “grain musk.” According to its origin four sorts are distinguished: Chinese or Tonquin musk, Siberian or Russian musk, Assam or Bengal musk, and finally Bokharian musk. The latter two varieties, however, rarely reach this market. Chinese musk (Tonquin or Thibet musk) occurs in small boxes containing twenty to thirty bags, each wrapped in Chinese tissue paper; on which Chinese characters are printed. This is considered the best quality. Assam musk occurs in boxes lined with tin which contain as many as two hundred or more bags; its value is about two-thirds that of the former. Russian musk is packed in various ways and is worth about one-fourth that of the Chinese; a special variety of it, of a weaker and rather urinous odor, is known as Cabardine musk; of least value is Bokharian musk which is of a grayish black color, with a faint odor.
Musk is adulterated in an almost incredible manner; at times so-called musk bags are met with which are artificially constructed of animal membranes and filled with dried blood, earth, etc., and slightly scented with genuine musk. But even the genuine musk bags are often tampered with; musk being removed from the opening and the space filled with earth, dried blood, animal excrement, or perhaps pieces of copper and lead.
Pure musk reacts quite characteristically toward caustic alkalies such as caustic potash and soda or solution of ammonia, and these substances are used for testing the purity of musk. If a dilute alkaline solution is poured over musk, a marked increase of the odor is observed after a short time; if the alkaline solution is concentrated or hot, the odor of musk disappears completely and the fluid develops the caustic odor of pure ammonia. Hot water dissolves about eighty per cent of the total weight of musk; strong alcohol dissolves about one-tenth of it; when heated in an open porcelain capsule, musk burns with a disgusting empyreumatic odor and leaves a considerable amount of ash, about one-tenth of its weight. Besides the above-named substances which destroy the musk odor by the decomposition of the aromatic constituent, there are other bodies, whose action we do not know at present, which have the peculiar property of completely extinguishing this most penetrating of all odors: to deodorize a vessel completely which has contained musk, it is sufficient to rub in it some bitter almonds moistened with water or some camphor with alcohol.
In an extremely dilute condition musk is used for perfuming the finest soaps and sachets, and even in the manufacture of the most expensive and best perfumes, owing to its property of imparting permanence to very volatile odors. In the last-mentioned class, however, the quantity of musk must always be so small that its presence is not distinctly observed, since many persons find the pure odor of musk very disagreeable, while they praise the fragrance of such perfumes as contain an amount of this substance too small to be perceived by the olfactory nerves.
Civet.
Latin—Civetta; French—Civette; German—Zibeth.
This substance bears some resemblance to musk with reference to its derivation and the rôle it plays in the life of the animal from which it is obtained. The Viverridæ, a class of carnivora related to the cats and weasels, found in Asia and Africa, furnish this substance. It is obtained chiefly from the civet cat (Viverra Civetta) and the musk rat (Viverra Zibetha) which are kept in captivity for the purpose of abstracting from them from time to time the civet which is always formed anew.
Civet is the secretion of a double gland present both in the male and the female near the sexual organs. Fresh civet is a whitish-yellow mass of the consistence of butter or fat, and becomes thicker and darker on exposure to the air. Similar to musk, it has a strong odor which becomes pleasant on being diluted and is used both alone and for fixing other odors.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CHEMICAL PRODUCTS USED IN PERFUMERY.
In the manufacture of perfumery a considerable number of chemical products find application; in this place, however, we shall describe only those which are used very frequently and generally, and discuss the characteristics of those employed more rarely in connection with the articles of perfumery into which they enter. According to their application we may divide these substances into several groups, namely:
A. Chemicals which, without themselves serving as perfumes, are used exclusively for the extraction of odors.
B. Chemicals which, while not fragrant, are frequently employed in the preparation of perfumes. Under this head we have included also those substances which are not strictly chemical products, but originally come from the animal or vegetable kingdom, such as fats, spermaceti, and wax, yet cannot be used in perfumery unless they have undergone a process of chemical purification.
C. Chemical products used for coloring perfumes, so-called dye-stuffs.
The greater portion of the substances to be here described it will hardly be the province of the perfumer to prepare himself, as they are furnished by chemical factories at low prices; but some of them—for instance, sublimed, natural benzoic acid suitable for perfumery and a few other substances—the perfumer should make himself, in order to be sure of its genuineness. Therefore, while in the former class it will be sufficient to describe their properties to enable the manufacturer to distinguish good quality from bad, the latter class must be discussed at greater length.
A. Chemicals used for the Extraction of Aromatic Substances.
For the extraction of aromatic substances from plants a number of bodies are used which possess great solvent power for essential oils, and are besides very volatile, or have a low boiling-point. These are particularly ether, chloroform, petroleum ether, and bisulphide of carbon.
Ether.
This liquid, in commerce also called sulphuric ether, is made in large quantities in chemical laboratories by the distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid, followed by a second distillation or rectification. When pure, ether forms a mobile, thin, strong-smelling, and inflammable liquid which when inhaled produces insensibility, for which reason it is used as an anæsthetic in surgery. Its specific gravity is about 0.720 when anhydrous, and its boiling-point 35° C. (95° F.). It forms an excellent solvent for essential oils, resins, fats, and similar bodies. Owing to its great volatility, its vapors are quickly diffused in the air, and, as they are very inflammable, lights must be kept away from a bottle containing this substance. The same remark applies to most of the substances to be presently described.
Chloroform.
is prepared by the distillation of chlorinated lime, alcohol, and water, acetone being more recently substituted for the alcohol, followed by rectification of the product. When inhaled it produces insensibility like ether. It has a pleasant odor and sweet taste. Its specific gravity is about 1.49 and its boiling-point 61° C. (142° F.). Owing to its great solvent power and low boiling-point, chloroform is largely used for the extraction of aromatic vegetable substances; it does not take fire directly in the air.
Petroleum Ether.
Petroleum, which is brought into commerce in immense quantities, especially from Pennsylvania, for illuminating purposes, cannot be used in its crude state, but requires rectification. Petroleum as it issues from the earth consists of various hydrocarbons mixed together, some of which have very low boiling-points, so that their vapors readily take fire and would make the use of petroleum in lamps dangerous. Petroleum, therefore, is heated in large apparatuses to about 70 or 80° C. (158 to 176° F.), when the more volatile products pass over, and the petroleum for illuminating purposes remains in the stills. A certain fraction of the volatile distillate, the so-called petroleum ether, is largely used in the manufacture of varnishes. Owing to its great solvent power for aromatic vegetable substances and its low price, petroleum ether has become quite an important body for the extraction of perfumes, which will be further discussed hereafter. Good petroleum ether is colorless, has a peculiar, not unpleasant odor and a boiling-point between 50 and 55° C. (112° and 131° F.).
Benzin.
is a common name for another fraction of the volatile distillate from petroleum, viz., that which boils between 50° and 60°C. (122° to 140° F.) and has a spec. grav. of 0.670 to 0.675°.
This liquid, which is also used as a volatile solvent for the extraction of odorous substances, must not be confounded with Benzene or Benzol, a distillate from coal tar, boiling at about 80° C. (176° F.) and having a spec. grav. of 0.878. The latter is not used for the extraction of perfumes.
Bisulphide of Carbon.
This is made by conducting vapors of sulphur over glowing charcoal or coke. The vapors of bisulphide of carbon thus formed are led into vessels filled with ice or ice-cold water, where they condense. Bisulphide of carbon is a colorless liquid, heavier than water and very refractive. It is inflammable, and possesses a peculiar odor which is not disagreeable if the liquid has been thoroughly purified. Its boiling-point is about 45° C. (113° F.) and it has great solvent power. At the present time, the market affords bisulphide of carbon of a high degree of purity.
Some manufacturers who prepare their odors by extraction, may find it advantageous to make also the bisulphide of carbon necessary for it, and this is best done in Gérard’s apparatus (Fig. 1). It consists of a cast-iron cylinder a, two metres high and one metre in diameter. This cylinder is heated on the outer surface in an oven, and two tubes, c and d, are attached to it. Tube d is connected by e with the hemispherical vessel b which is connected by the tube i with the condenser mlk. The condenser is formed of three cylinders made of sheet zinc which are surrounded with cold water. The condensed liquid escapes into the vessel p, while the gaseous products pass through n into the chimney. The cylinder a is filled with about 1,500 pounds of charcoal or coke in small pieces, after which it is closed and all tubes are carefully luted with clay; a is then heated to a strong red heat and at intervals of three minutes 3 pounds of sulphur are thrown in through c. In twenty-four hours, by the use of 478 pounds of sulphur, 568 pounds of crude bisulphide of carbon are obtained; a portion of the sulphur distils over uncombined into the vessel b.