Perfumes and their preparation

Oil of Jasmine,

not to be confounded with the oil of Syringa or German jasmine (Philadelphus coronarius), is colorless or yellowish and has a very strong, almost narcotic odor. It is one of the most valuable and at the same time most expensive aromatic substances employed in perfumery. Genuine oil of jasmine can be obtained only from Southern France at very high prices. What is usually sold as “oil of jasmine” is a fixed oil impregnated with the aroma of jasmine.

Oil of Cherry-Laurel

is not used as such in perfumery; at most cherry-laurel water may be employed. But as this has the odor of oil of bitter almond and as the presence of some prussic acid, on account of which the officinal cherry-laurel water is used, is of no value to the perfumer and is, in fact, undesirable, owing to its poisonous quality, we substitute in all cases a corresponding quantity of oil of bitter almond for cherry-laurel water.

Oil of Culilaban (Oleum Culilavani)

is light brown, somewhat viscid; the odor recalls that of the oils of cinnamon, sassafras, and clove. It has been used for scenting soap.

Oil of Caraway (Oleum Cari)

is light yellow and has an aromatic odor and burning taste. In perfumery it is used only for very cheap odors and for scenting soap; it finds its chief application in the manufacture of liqueurs.

Oil of Lavender (Oleum Lavandulæ).

This oil is of great importance to the perfumer and is imported in unsurpassed quality from England (Mitcham); it is light yellow, has a burning sharp taste, and is exceedingly sensitive to light and air, under the action of which it loses its refreshing odor in a very brief time and acquires a common smell recalling that of turpentine.

The buyer of this oil should take care to secure the true oil of lavender (from Lavandula vera); for the oil of spike-lavender is sold under the same name. This, prepared from Lavandula Spica, has a similar odor to the genuine, but cannot be compared with it in delicacy. For this reason, too, the difference in the price between the two is considerable. True English oil of lavender costs ten times as much as oil of spike-lavender. The English brand of the true oil is of so excellent a quality that it brings four or five times as much as the best French oil, which is sold under the name of huile de lavande des Alpes. Yet during the last decade or so the French oil of lavender flowers has become so much improved in quality that it has become a serious rival to the Mitcham oil.

Oil of Wallflower

made from the flowers of the well-known garden plant, and

Oil of Lily

likewise from the ornamental plant, are, strange to say, not manufactured in any place, to our knowledge. Experiments made by us in this direction prove that the odors of these plants can be obtained either by absorption or, more readily, by extraction. The perfumes thus far occurring under these names are always combinations of different scents which, though pleasant, have but little in common with the plants whose names they bear.

In this connection we may say that the perfumes sold under the names of various flowers often have no relation to them, but are mixtures of various odors. While it cannot be denied that perfumes may be made in this manner which resemble those of the respective plants, it is unquestionably an imperfection in the art of perfumery that these odors are not really made from the flowers mentioned. To give another characteristic instance, we may add that the delightful odor of the well-known lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis)—a plant which grows wild abundantly in many of our forests—has not yet been produced, and that even imitations of this odor, which in delicacy and fragrance stands next to those of the rose and violet, are seldom met with in commerce.

Oil of Lemon (Oleum Limonis),

obtained from the fruits of the lemon-tree, is one of the most important products, both statistically and economically, of the Citrus family. In German works there is often a confusion between “oil of citron” and “oil of lemon,” it being supposed by the authors that the “Citronen-öl” is derived from the citron (Citrus medica), and the “Limonen-öl” from the lemon (Citrus Limonum). There is, indeed, some oil made, occasionally, from the citron, but it does not figure in price-lists. The oil of the lemon, on the other hand, is very commonly called “Citronen-öl,” and the fruit itself “Citrone.” Hence, when “Citronen-öl” is quoted in a formula, it may be assumed at once that oil of lemon is intended. It is very liable to resinify, when it loses its fragrance.

Oil of Sweet Bay (Laurel) (Oleum Lauri)

is green, and usually mixed with the fixed oil of the same plant. It finds more frequent application in the manufacture of liqueurs than in perfumery; but as it has a pleasant odor it might well be used for cheap perfumes. But in that event it must be freed from the fixed oil by distillation.

Oil of Magnolia,

likewise, has not yet been prepared as such. The remarks made above under the head of oils of lily and wallflower apply also to this odor. The so-called magnolia perfumes are mixtures of different odors.

Oil of Marjoram (Oleum Majoranæ).

Oil of marjoram, which is obtained by distillation from the dried herb, has a strong aromatic odor. It is mentioned as having often been used in perfumery for scenting soap instead of oil of thyme, whose odor, moreover, is very similar to that of marjoram, but this is a mistake, due to the fact that ordinary oil of thyme has long been sold under the name of oil of origanum. True oil of marjoram costs about twelve dollars a pound, while oil of thyme (so-called oil of origanum) is worth only about eighty cents. It is rarely employed for volatile perfumes.

Oil of Melissa.

The oil of Melissa officinalis, owing to the very small yield, is quite expensive. It is used only for the preparation of some perfumes which owe their peculiar qualities to this strong odor. This oil must not be confounded with the spurious oil of melissa, also called oil of citron-melissa, which is identical with oil of lemon grass (see page 30).

Oils of Mint.

Although all the mints possess an agreeable odor, only three varieties find extensive application. There are the oils from Mentha piperita, peppermint; Mentha viridis, spearmint; and Mentha crispa, crispmint. The oils of English manufacture are highly esteemed, but the United States also produces them of excellent quality. At one time the cultivation of mints, particularly peppermint, was greatly extended, with the expectation of deriving satisfactory profit from the enterprise. It has, however, been conclusively shown that the market cannot absorb more than a certain quantity of these products; and that any over-production brings loss and disappointment to the investor. Beside the three kinds of mint above mentioned, there is another species, Mentha arvensis, a native of Japan, which is extensively cultivated there, and is the chief source of the menthol of commerce, so well known as an efficient remedy for neuralgia, migraine, etc., in form of menthol cones. The three varieties of the mint oils previously mentioned are distinguished, aside from their pleasant odor, by the property of leaving a very refreshing and cooling taste in the mouth, and for this reason they form the most important constituent of all fine mouth washes.

True oil of peppermint, Oleum Menthæ piperitæ, when pure is colorless, very mobile, of a burning sharp taste which is followed by a peculiar coolness. The commercial product is usually pale green. Oil of crispmint, Oleum Menthæ crispæ, which in Europe is often sold to novices as oil of peppermint, has always a more or less yellow color and resembles the oil of peppermint in its properties, but it is less fine and cheaper. The same is true of the oil of spearmint, but this has a very characteristic odor and taste, distinctly different from peppermint.

As above stated, the oils of mint are extensively used for mouth washes, also for scenting soap, in liqueurs and pastils, but rarely in handkerchief perfumes.

Oils of Mace and Nutmeg (Oleum Macidis and Oleum Myristicæ).

These oils are prepared either from the seed coat (Oleum Macidis) or the nutmeg itself (Oleum Myristicæ). Oil of mace generally has a yellowish-red color in tint varying from dark to light and even colorless. Its taste is agreeable and mild and the odor exceedingly strong. Like oil of nutmeg, it is extensively used in the manufacture of liqueurs and for scenting soap. The oil prepared by distillation from the nutmeg is, when fresh, almost colorless or at most faintly yellow, of a burning sharp taste, and an aromatic odor. Like oil of mace, it is used in the manufacture of liqueurs and soaps and also in many perfumes.

In India a third valuable product is obtained from the nutmeg by expression of the ripe fruits and is called nutmeg butter. This is bright yellow and consists of a true fat and an essential oil. Its odor is very pleasant and a very superior soap can be made by saponification of this valuable product with soda lye.

Oil of Myrtle.

This oil is of a greenish color and very mobile, but it is not a commercial product; the manufacturer must prepare the oil himself from the leaves, though the yield is small. The articles sold as so-called essence of myrtle are always mixtures of different odors. Southern France, however, exports at high prices a myrtle water (eau des anges) which is really made by distillation of the leaves with water.

Oil of Narcissus.

As to the odor to which this flower owes its fragrance we may repeat what we have said just now with reference to the oil of myrtle: we have never succeeded in obtaining this oil in commerce. The so-called essence of narcissus, though a very pleasant mixture, contains no trace of the true oil. As to

Oil of Pink,

the same remark applies: the compositions sold under the name of essence d’œillet, however, have a very striking odor of pink.

Oil of Clove (Oleum Caryophylli).

This oil when fresh is colorless, but soon becomes yellowish or brown. It is heavier than water in which it sinks and is characterized by an exceedingly strong burning taste and a spicy odor. It remains at least partly fluid at a very low temperature, namely,-20° C. (-4° F.).

Oil of Orange Flowers (Oleum Naphæ, Oleum Neroli),

commercially known also under the French names huile de fleurs d’oranges, huile néroli, huile néroli pétale, is obtained from the flowers of the orange-tree in Southern France, where the orange is specially planted for this purpose. The odor of the oil varies with the mode of its preparation; that obtained by distillation with water has a different odor from that made by maceration with fat and extraction with alcohol. The latter variety of oil as such, however, is not found in commerce, the alcoholic extract entering at once into the composition of the perfumes.

The French manufacturers of this oil, which is of great importance in perfumery, distinguish several varieties. The most valuable is the oil from the flowers of Citrus vulgaris (or Citrus Bigaradia), the true bitter orange (or Seville orange) tree. This is the so-called néroli bigarade. That called néroli pétale is obtained from the same flowers carefully deprived of their floral envelopes, so that only the petals are subjected to distillation. Much cheaper than these two is the oil of petit grain which is distilled from the leaves and sometimes also unripe fruits of various trees of the Citrus order.

All these oils are among the most delicate; when fresh they are colorless and have a peculiar bitter taste; exposed to light and air they assume a reddish tint and undergo rapid resinification. They should, therefore, be preserved in particularly well-closed vessels in a dark, cool place.

Not to be confounded with these oils is the

Oil of Orange,

of which there are two kinds, one from the bitter orange, known also as Oil of Orange, Bigarade, and the other from the sweet orange, also known as Oil of Portugal. Both are extracted from the peel of the fruit by mechanical means. Both oils of orange peel are golden yellow, and have a pleasant, refreshing odor recalling that of the fruit. They find application for scenting soap, in toilet waters, and in some true perfumes. When oil of orange or oil of orange peel is mentioned in any formula, without further specification, the oil of bitter orange peel should be used.

Oil of Patchouly.

This oil, which might be manufactured with advantage in India, the home of the plant, is, strange to say, not imported from that country, but is distilled in Europe from the dried herb. Fresh oil of patchouly is brown in color, very viscid, almost like balsam, and surpasses all other essential oils in the intensity of its odor. Owing to the strong odor, pure oil of patchouly must really be called ill-smelling; only when highly diluted does the odor become pleasant, and then forms a useful ingredient of many perfumes as the fundamental odor in the harmony.

Oil of Syringa.

Oil of false jasmine, from the flowers of Philadelphus coronarius, is not made as such; in Southern France, however, the flowers are frequently used for the preparation of a cheap pomade known commercially as orange-flower pomade. A personal experiment made with the view to obtain the pure odor by extraction of the flowers with petroleum ether has shown that this plant is suitable for making very fine preparations, both handkerchief perfumes and pomades.

Oil of Allspice,

of a burning sharp taste and odor, is colorless, but is hardly ever used for the purposes of the perfumer—at most for soaps—but all the more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs, and particularly also in that of artificial bay-rum.

Oil of Sweet Pea

has not been made thus far, though there is no doubt that this perfume, too, can be prepared pure from the alcoholic extract of the pomade. The properties of the oil should resemble those of the finest néroli pétale.

Oil of Rue (Oleum Rutæ).

This oil, obtained by distillation of the herb, is colorless or pale yellow, of a very strong, penetrating odor; it is used in some washes, but more particularly as an ingredient in the manufacture of artificial cognac, for which purpose the plant is specially cultivated in France.

Oil of Reseda (Mignonette).

The delightful odor of this plant which formerly could only be fixed by maceration in fat may be readily prepared by extraction with petroleum ether. Yet special precautions should be taken that nothing but portions of the flowers, carefully picked off, and no green leaves are extracted. The oil thus obtained has a yellow color and a disagreeable odor which changes into the well-known pleasant smell of the flower when highly diluted with alcohol.

Oil of Rose (Oleum Rosæ),

also known as attar or otto of rose. The various species of roses give different odors. The commercial Turkish, Persian, and Indian oils of rose (which latter is never exported)—which, by the way, are very generally adulterated even at their point of production—are derived mainly from Rosa damascena, and when highly diluted yield the pleasant odor of our ordinary garden roses. The rose oils having the odor of the moss rose, tea rose, or dog rose are made almost exclusively in France and in commerce do not appear pure but generally in the form of pomades or alcoholic solutions known as essences de roses.

True rose oil is yellowish or yellow, or else greenish, and varying from liquid almost to the consistence of butter. Between these extremes there are all possible gradations. A comparatively very high congealing-point is a characteristic of oil of rose. It becomes almost solid at 14 to 20° C. (57 to 68° F.). The portion separated during solidification is colorless, markedly crystalline, and, strange to say, almost odorless. Pure oil of rose smells disagreeably narcotic, only the very dilute solution shows the incomparable fragrance.

Much superior to the oils of rose which are prepared from rose leaves (either fresh or salted) are those obtained by maceration or extraction with petroleum ether. Those perfumes sold under the name of various species of rose, such as moss rose, etc., are combinations of rose oil with other aromatics.

Oil of Rhodium.

This bright yellow light oil is obtained by distillation of the wood of Convolvulus Scoparius. At times this oil is scarce in commerce. It has a faint but decided odor of rose.

Oil of Rosemary (Oleum Rosmarini).

This oil is obtained by distillation from the herb of the rosemary plant as a thin, pale green fluid with an aromatic odor and spicy taste. It is used as an ingredient in some old renowned handkerchief perfumes—for instance, Cologne water—also for flavoring soaps and liqueurs.

Oil of Sage (Oleum Salviæ),

from the flowers of Salvia officinalis, is yellowish, with an odor somewhat similar to that of oil of peppermint, but far less intense. Like the latter it imparts a pleasant coolness to the mouth and hence is used in some mouth washes.

Oil of Santal (Oleum Santali).

The oil of santal wood (also called sandal-wood oil) has a thick, honey-like consistence and an agreeable, rose-like odor. Formerly it was sometimes used for the adulteration of oil of rose, but can also very well be used alone for several perfumes and fumigating preparations.

Oil of Sassafras (Oleum Sassafras)

is yellow, spicy, with a burning odor and taste; in the cold it crystallizes only in part. The odor of this oil recalls that of fennel. The purest form of it, or rather substitute for it, is safrol, its main constituent, which is, however, now extracted more economically from crude oil of camphor, in which it likewise forms an ingredient.

Oil of Meadow-sweet (Oleum Spirææ).

Several species of Spiræa, and especially Spiræa ulmaria, furnish very pleasant odors. This oil consists mainly of salicylic aldehyde.

Despite its pleasant odor and the facility of its production, this substance has thus far found little application in perfumery. The natural oil of meadowsweet, owing to its extremely high price, can hardly ever be used.

Oil of Star-Anise (Oleum Anisi Stellati; Oleum Illicii)

resembles in its properties the oil of anise, even in its odor; but all connoisseurs agree that the odor of the oil of star-anise far surpasses that of the oil of anise, hence the former is used especially for fine perfumes. This preference, however, does not extend to all preparations. For certain liqueurs, such as anisette, the oil obtained from common anise (Saxon anise) is usually preferred. Many also regard the odor of star-anise as inferior to that of fine European anise.

Oils of Thyme (Oleum Thymi).

The essential oils of thyme (chiefly Thymus vulgaris) and some related plants are very frequently used for scenting cheap soaps. The oils of these plants are light yellow, and so similar in odor that it is not possible to distinguish them except by direct comparison.

Oil of Vanilla,

or, more correctly, vanilla camphor, the true odorous constituent of vanilla, also called vanillin, is a crystalline substance with a delightful odor, melting at 76° C. (169° F.). This is now extensively made artificially from the cambium sap of pines, the coniferin being converted by chemical processes into vanillin. One ounce of good vanillin is equivalent to about forty ounces of best Mexican vanilla beans.

Oil of Violet

has thus far been produced in but very small quantities from the alcoholic extract of the true violet pomade; it has a greenish color and when pure a narcotic odor not to be recognized as that of the flower. The pleasant odor of violets manifests itself only in extreme dilution.

Oil of Verbena

is yellow, with a very pleasant odor of lemons. Its price being quite high, it is usually adulterated with oil of lemon-grass, or else the latter is sold under the name of oil of verbena (see p. 30). In fact the odors of the two oils are so similar that they are easily confounded.

Oil of Vetiver (Oleum Ivaranchusæ),

from Andropogon muricatus (see p. 30), is viscid, reddish-brown, with a very strong and lasting odor.

Oil of Wintergreen (Oleum Gaultheriæ).

This product is obtained by distillation from the leaves and twigs of Gaultheria procumbens or else by distilling the bark or leaves of Betula lenta with water, in which case the oil is generated by the action of the water, as it does not pre-exist in the birch, and, moreover, in this case the oil consists of nothing but methyl salicylate. It differs, like oil of meadowsweet, very markedly from the other aromatic substances and mainly consists of a so-called compound ether. It is a salicylate of methyl, boils at 220° C. (428° F.), is much heavier than water (specific gravity 1·173 to 1·184), and dissolves readily in alcohol and other solvents. It is used chiefly for scenting soap; the perfumes sold as wintergreen are usually mixtures of different substances which contain no oil of wintergreen.

Oil of Ylang-Ylang (Oleum Unonæ odoratissimæ)

is imported from Manilla. It is colorless or yellowish, and has a most delightful characteristic odor, which is rather fugitive if not made resistant by other substances. It forms an important constituent of several of the most favorite and expensive essences.

Oil of Hyssop (Oleum Hyssopi)

is colorless, but rapidly becomes yellow in the air. It is used in some very cheap perfumes and in the manufacture of liqueurs.

Oils of Cinnamon (Oleum Cinnamomi).

Commercially we find chiefly three varieties of essential oils which are designated as: oil of Ceylon cinnamon, oil of Chinese cinnamon or oil of cassia, and oil of cinnamon leaves. Oil of Ceylon cinnamon, sometimes called “true oil of cinnamon,” made from the bark of the twigs of the cinnamon laurel and formerly imported mainly from Ceylon but now distilled in large amounts in Germany from imported cinnamon “chips,” is rather viscid, golden yellow to reddish-brown in color, of a burning though sweet taste. In the air it gradually absorbs oxygen, when it becomes dark red, thicker, and of weaker flavor. Oil of Ceylon cinnamon, which should always be used in perfumes or liqueurs when simply “oil of cinnamon” is directed, has a specific gravity of 1·030 to 1·035 at 15° C. (59° F.) and boils at about 240° C. (464° F.). Its chief constituent upon which its aroma depends is cinnamyl aldehyde.

Oil of Chinese cinnamon, or oil of cassia, has for a very long time, up to within a few years, always reached the market in a more or less adulterated state, a regular practice of the Chinese exporters being to dissolve ordinary resin in it (claiming afterward that the “resin” was caused by the oxidation of the oil through age) and often also to add petroleum to it. These frauds have been well shown up by Schimmel & Co., of Leipsic; and in consequence thereof, the quality of oil of cassia exported from China has been greatly improved. Oil of cassia when pure has a specific gravity of 1·060 to 1·065, and should contain not less than seventy-five per cent of cinnamyl aldehyde.

Oil of cinnamon leaves is an inferior product, often used for adulterating oil of Ceylon cinnamon. It does not deserve notice by the perfumer.

As an appendix we may add in this connection a description of the

Oil of Turpentine (Oleum Terebinthinæ),

because it must be called an important substance to know for the perfumer, inasmuch as it is very frequently used for the adulteration of different essential oils. Oil of turpentine, which is obtained from incisions into the bark of different fir and pine trees, the exuding resin being distilled with water, comes into commerce from various sources. Different sorts are distinguished, but to the perfumer only the rectified oil of turpentine, oleum terebinthinæ rectificatum, is important. Oil of turpentine has a yellowish color and a decidedly disagreeable, resinous, and burnt taste. By repeated distillation, especially over quicklime or chloride of lime (bleaching powder), it is finally obtained as a colorless, very refractive liquid with a density of 0·855 to 0·870 and a boiling-point at 160° C. (320° F.). Its odor is peculiar, but not easily distinguished from that of old essential oils, such as oils of caraway, anise, etc. One peculiarity of oil of turpentine is that its odor is easily masked by that of other essential oils, so that, for instance, a comparatively large quantity of oil of turpentine needs the addition of but little oil of anise to impart to the entire mixture a rather pronounced odor of anise. This peculiarity has led to the frequent employment of rectified oil of turpentine for the adulteration of other essential oils.

CHAPTER IX.
THE ADULTERATIONS OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND THEIR RECOGNITION.

We find it necessary to devote a special chapter to the adulterations of the commercial essential oils because an experience of many years has shown us that hardly any other group of products is subject to so many sophistications as essential oils. The high price of most aromatic substances and the difficulty of recognizing the adulteration furnish an inviting field to the unscrupulous manufacturer. In the best interest of the perfumer, therefore, we advise the purchase of essential oils only from renowned reliable houses, even at higher prices, for the cheap commercial products are almost worthless, since they are almost without exception adulterated.

The adulterations are very manifold. Some expensive oils are mixed with cheaper ones having a similar odor—for instance, oil of rose with oil of geranium or oil of geranium grass; oil of orange flowers with the oil from Philadelphus coronarius; oil of verbena with oil of lemon grass; oils of caraway, anise, and fennel with oil of turpentine; oil of cinnamon with oil of cassia, etc. Besides these, other deceptions are practised—for instance, oil of anise is mixed with oil of turpentine and in order to make the mixture congeal readily (which is the characteristic of true oil of anise, as above stated) paraffin or spermaceti is added. A similar practice prevails with adulterated oil of rose and other viscid oils. Oil of bitter almond we have found adulterated with or entirely replaced by nitrobenzol, etc.

The demonstration of the adulteration of an essential oil by chemical means offers many difficulties. We devote particular attention to the physical characteristics, for experience has shown us that the olfactory organ—provided it is very expert—is often able to determine the genuineness of any aromatic substance when other tests have given only uncertain results, or can give certain results only in the hands of experts. To make this test, however, quite reliable, it is necessary to be familiar with the substances in their pure unadulterated condition.

The manufacturer of perfumery, therefore, should spare neither trouble nor pecuniary sacrifices to obtain possession of absolutely genuine specimens of those essential oils, even in minute quantities, which he intends to employ. Such samples should be carefully preserved (protected from heat, evaporation, daylight, etc.) for the purpose of immediate comparison with the oils to be purchased.

As above stated, the physical properties of the essential oils usually furnish the means of recognizing their purity, and these give more reliable results to the practical perfumer than the chemical tests. The most valuable points are furnished by the boiling-point, the congealing-point, and the density of the oils. The following table gives the boiling and congealing points of the most important essential oils in degrees of the centigrade thermometer, together with the density (or specific gravity); where two figures are given, they indicate the extreme limits found in genuine samples.

Special characteristics of some essential oils with reference to their action at low temperatures or their melting-point are given in the column “Remarks.”

Oil of turpentine, paraffin, wax, and spermaceti being frequently used for the adulteration of essential oils, have been included in the table.

If accurate results are aimed at in the examination of an essential oil according to this table, the specific gravity should be determined by means of a scale sensitive to one one-thousandth gram, and the thermometer should be graduated to the tenth of a degree.

Table Showing the Approximate Density, Boiling and Congealing Points of the most Important Essential Oils Used in Perfumery.

In buying essential oils, except it be from a house whose reputation is a guaranty of their genuineness, it is to the interest of the perfumer to make a test. He must look for certain substances which are generally used for the sophistication of essential oils. These are: A. Other essential oils; B. Fixed oils; C. Alcohol; D. Paraffin, spermaceti, wax.

A. Adulteration of Essential Oils with Other Essential Oils.

This mode of adulteration, which is frequent, is naturally the one most difficult of demonstration. In the case of cheap oils such as those of caraway, lemon, orange peel, etc., rectified oil of turpentine is almost without exception the adulterant. The methods usually recommended, such as attempting to dissolve out the oil of turpentine by strong alcohol, hoping thus to separate it from the essential oil, are without practical value.

The adulteration can, however, often be demonstrated by rubbing a drop of the suspected oil on a glass plate and testing the odor, provided the olfactory organ is trained. As the above table shows, the oils have different high boiling-points, while oil of turpentine boils at a rather low temperature, hence it evaporates sooner than the others and can be demonstrated by its odor.

The demonstration of an adulteration with an essential oil is most certain by so-called fractional distillation. Some of the oil to be examined (about four to six fluidrachms) is placed in a small retort with condenser and heated to a temperature a few degrees below the boiling-point of the oil in question. If, for instance, oil of bergamot adulterated with oil of turpentine is to be tested, it is heated carefully to nearly 188° C. (370° F.), the boiling-point of the oil of bergamot; the oil of turpentine which boils at 160° C. (320° F.) passes over completely, while the oil of bergamot remains in the retort.

Fractional distillation is also the most reliable way of demonstrating an adulteration with a fixed oil or with paraffin, wax, or spermaceti. An adulteration of oil of lavender with oil of spike-lavender, which is otherwise barely recognizable, is positively shown by this method; even oil of geranium in oil of rose, oil of cassia in oil of cinnamon, etc., may be thus demonstrated.

B. Adulteration of Essential Oils with Fixed Oils.

An addition of fixed oils can be easily demonstrated by agitation of the oil with strong alcohol in which the essential oil dissolves, while the fixed oil remains unchanged. Castor oil, however, is likewise soluble in alcohol and for this reason is frequently used for the adulteration of essential oils. Yet the presence of a fixed oil can also be shown in a very simple manner by placing a drop of the suspected oil upon white paper and leaving it for some hours in a warm spot. If the oil was pure, the translucent stain on the paper will disappear completely (also when the oil was adulterated with turpentine); but if it was mixed with a fixed oil, the stain will remain permanently and cannot be removed from the paper even by strong heat.

C. Adulteration with Alcohol.

This frequent adulteration is demonstrated either by fractional distillation, when the alcohol passes over first between 70° and 80° C. (158° and 176° F.), or by the use of the vessel illustrated in Fig. 31, which is divided into 100 equal parts.

The vessel is filled to the tenth division with the oil to be tested, and water is added to bring the volume to the 50 mark. If alcohol is present, it is taken up by the water so that the volume of oil appears to diminish. If the oil reaches to the mark 7, it contained three volumes of alcohol, or in other words it was mixed with thirty per cent of alcohol. It is true, essential oils likewise dissolve somewhat in water, but in such minute quantities as not to affect the success of the test.

D. Adulteration with Paraffin, Spermaceti, or Wax.

This mode of adulteration is practised mainly with viscid oils which congeal at rather high temperatures, such as oils of anise, rose, etc., the essential oils being usually mixed at the same time with oil of turpentine or paraffin. The fraud is easily detected by fractional distillation.

Oil of bitter almonds is often adulterated with oil of mirbane; this can be demonstrated by shaking 1 volume of the oil with 17 volumes of alcohol of 45%, and setting the mixture aside to settle. The nitrobenzol (oil of mirbane) will then collect at the bottom. Oil of Rose may be tested as follows: Mix the oil with an equal quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid. Neither the color nor the odor of the oil should be changed, but if oil of geranium was present a disagreeable odor and a darker color is produced.

It has been proposed, too, to test the oils by heating with iodine or nitric acid and determining the purity by the reaction; but the results with the different oils are so similar that the test is almost worthless. We have had the same experience with the test by nitro-prusside of copper which on being heated with essential oils gives colored precipitates differing with various oils, but still so similar that they cannot be relied upon. We have found in all cases that a comparison of an oil with a sample of known purity is the best, or else the tests given in the preceding pages.

CHAPTER X.
THE ESSENCES OR EXTRACTS EMPLOYED IN PERFUMERY.

The term essence or extract in perfumery means a solution of an aromatic substance in strong alcohol. These solutions are generally made as concentrated as possible and in this form find application in the manufacture of handkerchief perfumes and of certain odors bearing a special name. The so-called extrait d’œillet, extract of pink, or the favorite perfumes known as new-mown hay have nothing in common with either pink or hay except the name; like many other odors, both are merely mixtures of different essences or extracts.

Besides the manufacture of true perfumes, essences or extracts are also used for scenting fine soaps, sachets, mouth washes, etc. For the latter, too, use is often made of the so-called aromatic waters (eaux aromatisées) which are obtained as a by-product in the distillation of fragrant plants, and have a very fine odor owing to the small amount of the aromatic substance they hold in solution. To this class belong orange-flower water (Aqua Naphæ triplex, eau de fleurs d’oranges), peppermint water (Aqua Menthæ, eau de menthe), and many others.

Essences or extracts can be made in two ways: in the case of aromatic substances which are obtainable in the pure state—that is, essential oils—by dissolving them in strong alcohol in definite proportions; in the case of aromatics combined with a fatty substance by one of the processes described above, by treating the pomade (lard, or other perfectly bland, sweet, and in itself odorless fat combined with the aromatic) or huile antique (fixed oil holding the aromatic substance in solution) with the strongest alcohol.

According to the action of the alcohol upon the pomade or huile antique at ordinary or higher temperature, the process is called cold or warm infusion. Cold infusion furnishes the odor in a much more delicate and superior form than the warm. The cold infusion requires for complete solution of the aromatic four to six weeks; the warm, ten to fourteen days. Although the former consumes a much longer time, it is to be preferred, as the heat injures the odor. Pomades or huiles antiques are never completely exhausted by a single treatment with alcohol. Even when heat is employed they always retain a portion of the aromatic with great tenacity; a second and third infusion still abstracts odor from them, and finally nothing remains but pure fat with a pleasant odor which is stained and sold commercially as pomade under the name of the respective odor—violet, orange flower, reseda, etc.—or else is used over again in the factory for the extraction of flowers.

Experience has shown us that it is best to infuse the pomades or huiles antiques twice in the cold and to use the two fluids united for the finest perfumes; the residue by warm infusion furnishes an essence of second quality, and superior pomades or fragrant oils. The infusion is generally effected in strong glass bottles of a capacity of three to five gallons; about five to six quarts of cologne spirit being poured over six to eight pounds or pints of fat or huile antique.

In treating huiles antiques all parts of the oil should be brought into contact with the alcohol as much as possible, hence the bottles must be frequently shaken; a better plan is to bring the tightly closed bottles into an apparatus in which they are constantly agitated by rotation. Such an apparatus is easily made by placing the bottles in an inclined position between two rods fastened to a common axis which is kept revolving. The adjoining illustration (Fig. 32) shows such a contrivance which is required also in the manufacture of perfumes. The rotation may be effected by clockwork, water power, or any other motor.