CHAPTER III
MAKING THE PICTURE
Loading the Camera
Most hand cameras are made to take roll film. This is especially convenient as a darkroom is not required for loading. Extending the full length of the strip of film and several inches beyond each end is a strip of lightproof paper, which in connection with the flanges on the spool, forms a lightproof cartridge.
The loading operation is performed entirely by daylight, but a position should be selected where the light is somewhat subdued. Care must be taken before beginning the work to see that the shutter is closed. The empty spool is inserted in the winding end and the full spool is placed in the recess at the opposite end by pulling out the spool pins and allowing the film cartridge to drop into place, care being taken that the top of the spool is at the top of the camera. Otherwise the opaque red paper would be between the lens and the film. The spool pins are then pushed back into place in the holes at the end of the spool so that the spool revolves upon them. The gummed strip that holds the end of the red paper is next removed and the paper is sufficiently unrolled to thread into the empty spool. Unless it is kept taut it may slip and loosen sufficiently to admit light which would fog the film. The back of the camera is next replaced and the winding key turned until the figure 1 appears at the little red window.
Film packs contain film similar to roll film but cut to the various sizes in use. They can be loaded and removed from the camera in daylight, the darkroom only being necessary when the films are to be removed from the pack and developed. The film pack consists of 12 flat cut films packed in a lightproof case and attached singly to strips of black paper the ends of which project from the top of the pack and terminate in tabs numbered from 1 to 12. By the use of a film pack adapter an ordinary plate camera is transformed into a daylight loading film camera. After the pack is placed in position in the camera, the tab marked “safety cover,” is pulled out and torn off at the place marked. The first film is now ready for exposure. After making the first exposure, tab No. 1 is pulled out and torn off in the same manner and so on until No. 12 is removed which will draw the last film to the back of the pack. The films now being protected from light, the pack can be removed in daylight and another inserted.
Plates must be loaded into plate holders or into the plate magazine in the dark room illuminated only by a safelight lamp. Cut films are loaded similarly into film holders, film magazines, and also into film sheaths which are to be used in plate holders, by the aid of suitable safelight in the darkroom.
CHOICE OF SUBJECT AND VIEWPOINT
There are of course subjects innumerable which will make pleasing pictures. Regardless of whether the picture is a landscape or a portrait, there are several points that should be kept in mind in regard to artistic composition if the picture is to be pleasing pictorially as well as good technically.
COMPOSITION[4]. This may be defined as the bringing of things together in an orderly and symmetrical arrangement. It is not an exact science that can be depended upon to produce results mechanically, but its general principles can be applied in such a way as to aid materially in avoiding the inartistic.
The first lesson to be learned is to leave out what is not required. This is known as selection. By moving the camera to the right or left, up or down, focusing at different planes, and using different stop openings, much that is objectionable may be either eliminated or at least made unobtrusive.
Simplicity is the keynote of artistic work. Over-crowding must be avoided. Ordinarily the picture should have but one object or group of principal interest, all others being subordinate and helping support it.
There should be such a combining of masses, tones and lines as to produce a pleasing whole. This is known as harmony and balance. Objects should be so grouped that there will not be too many shadows or highlights of equal importance. The exact center is the weakest portion of the picture and so important objects should be a little to one side and in some cases slightly above or below. The picture should balance, both vertically and horizontally, a large mass near the center being balanced by several smaller objects on the other side or by a smaller one further from the center.
In the case of landscapes, neither the horizon nor a vertical line should ever exactly divide the picture into two equal parts. If there are subjects of importance in the near foreground, the horizon line should be perhaps 1–3 down from the top as this gives a prominent foreground; for broad expansive views it should be the same distance from the bottom in order to direct attention to the sky and more distant parts of the landscape. A clouded sky should be included if possible. Clouds are a pictorial asset as they break up the monotony of the white sky and add greatly to the beauty and attractiveness of the picture, but they cannot ordinarily be obtained without the use of a filter. A sky filter is a little attachment which slips over the front of the lens, and as only the upper portion of the filter is colored it keeps back the excessive light from the sky without appreciably affecting the exposure. Thus many clouds will be brought out nicely in the picture which ordinarily do not show because of overexposure.
In landscape photography it is not generally advisable to introduce human figures as in nearly all cases they fail, either in costume or in pose, to harmonize with the subject. The domestic animals, such as horses, cows and sheep, can, however, frequently be included with success. When human figures are introduced they should not look directly at the camera.
For pictorial landscape work a diffusion attachment as the Kodak Pictorial Diffusion Disk may be placed over the regular lens or a soft focus lens such as the Verito[5] may be used.
LIGHTING. This is of equal importance with the arrangement of the subject in the picture as it determines the strength and position of the lights and shadows. It is the variation in these that gives the picture depth and roundness, making the subject stand out from the surroundings. The beginner when making exposures in the sunlight should have the sun behind him, but a little to one side. If the illumination comes from directly back of the camera, the shadows are more or less lost, giving a flat appearance. However, contrary to the generally published advice, some of the most pleasing results may be obtained with the sun from in front but a little to one side. In such a case it is necessary to shade the lens from the direct rays of the sun. The exposure should be increased as there are more deep shadows.
STEPS IN TAKING THE PICTURE
After the folding camera is loaded, there are still the following steps to be carried out in taking the picture:
1. See that an unexposed portion of film is in position for the exposure.
2. Open the camera, and set the focus if a focusing model is being used.
3. Adjust the diaphragm opening.
4. Set the shutter (on some types).
5. Hold the camera level and include the view wanted.
6. Make the exposure.
1. When roll film is being used, a fresh section should be turned into position immediately after each exposure. Similarly with film packs the tab should be pulled out as soon as each exposure is made so as to be all ready for the next. This is often overlooked by beginners with the result that two pictures are made on the same section of film.
2. On the bed of most adjustable hand cameras, is a scale marked with figures, usually 6 to 100, indicating feet. The front of the camera must be extended until the pointer is over the figure indicating the number of feet which the operator has estimated to be the distance to the subject. Some types of cameras are equipped with a screw focusing device—a revolving ring, which is marked with a scale and moves the lens back and forth. When using a large stop and working up close, it is necessary to estimate the distance carefully but when using a medium small stop such as f.16 and photographing an object 50 feet or farther away, the focus need be estimated only with approximate accuracy.
If the camera is 3¼ × 4¼ or smaller it may be used as if it were a fixed focus type by extending the front to the 25 foot mark on the focusing scale and using stop f.11 (U.S.8).
3. In choosing the stop to use it is necessary to consider the amount of light available, the rapidity of movement of the subject, the depth of focus needed, and the shutter speed that is to be used. Large stops are necessarily used for slow snapshot exposures under poor lighting conditions, and for very rapid instantaneous exposures of moving objects in bright sunlight. They are also used to limit the depth of focus so as to make the principal object stand out from its background. This is more particularly desirable in portraiture. Smaller stops give sharper images especially over a greater depth of field, and are generally used for groups, views and other subjects, where the entire picture must be sharp. In such a case it may be necessary to use a tripod and give a time exposure.
While there are exceptions to the appended table of stops to be used, yet it will be helpful, especially to beginners.
f.4.5 (a) For extra rapid exposures when thelight
is very good, i. e. for moving objects at 1–100 to 1–1000 of a second.
(b) For portraiture indoors when the light is only fair and short time
or bulb exposures are made.
(c) For slow snapshots outdoors when
the light is poor, or indoors by a sunlit window. This opening gives
but little depth of focus so the camera must be carefully focused.
f.6.3 (a) For quick exposures of moving objects in good
light with shutter speeds to about 1–300 second.
(b) For slower speeds on hazy and slightly cloudy days.
(c) For indoor home portraiture.
f.7.7 or f.8 (U.S.4) (a) For instantaneous exposures in
slightly cloudy weather, speed 1–25. (Do not attempt instantaneous
exposures on dark, cloudy days.)
(b) For flashlight groups.
(c) For portraiture indoors or outdoors in the shade.
f.11 (U.S.8) (a) For all ordinary instantaneous exposures
when the subject is in bright sunshine, using 1–25 sec.
(b) For flashlight interiors.
f.16 (U.S.16) (a) For instantaneous exposures when the
sunlight on the subject is unusually strong and there
are no heavy shadows, as for views on the seashore,
or on the water, using speed 1–50.
(b) For ordinary landscapes in bright sunshine with clear
sky overhead, speed 1–25.
(c) For interior time exposures.
f.22 (U.S.32) (a) For instantaneous exposures of
extremely distant views.
(b) For marine or snow scenes, or clouds in bright
sunshine, at speed 1–25.
(c) For time exposures of interiors, and of outdoor
scenes in cloudy weather.
f.32, f.45 (U.S.64, U.S.128) (a) For time exposures outdoors in cloudy weather. Never used for snapshots.
4. When making instantaneous exposures it is necessary to see that the shutter is set at “I.” In addition to this some shutters must be “set” by special levers, much as a gun is cocked, before they can be operated. If instantaneous exposures are to be made while holding the camera, a large enough stop must be used so that the exposure will be ¹/₂₅ second or less, as few people can hold a camera steady for a longer time.
5. When making the exposures, care must be taken to hold the camera level and have it include the exact view wanted. If the camera is inclined to one side, horizontal lines will be at an angle in the picture; if pointed up, a building will photograph smaller at the top; if down, the opposite will be the case. If the camera is fitted with a rising front, it will be found useful for eliminating undesirable foreground or including the top of a tall building. In the case of architectural subjects it is especially important that the back of the camera remains vertical in order to prevent any distortion of the lines of the building.
A single reversible view finder is provided with most cameras. It is notched to indicate the view that will be included both when the camera is used vertically and horizontally. One should always look at the finder from directly above and not at an angle, or the view included will not be accurately seen.
6. Exposure is made by means of a lever, or cable release.
MAKING THE EXPOSURE
Exposure depends on such a variety of factors that only with practice will the worker be able to give consistently the correct amount under varied conditions. Nearly all of the subjects ordinarily photographed by daylight may be classified into four groups. Since the normal exposure for each of these groups may be easily memorized, the outdoor exposure problem is reduced to the simple one of determining to which group the subject belongs. While the table is eminently satisfactory for stationary objects, it is not adapted for rapidly moving objects as the shutter speed would be too slow. When using these tables, a faster or slower shutter speed may be used if the stop opening is varied accordingly so as to give the same amount of light. As explained, each succeeding smaller stop than f.8 (U.S. 4) admits about half as much light as the next larger. The exposure tables are for from 2½ hours after sunrise until 2½ hours before sunset on days when the sun is shining on the subject.
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLES
(Rectilinear and Anastigmat Lenses)
| Groups | Shutter Speed |
Rectilinear Lenses Stop |
Anastigmat Lenses Stop |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1— | Snow, marine and beach | ¹/₂₅ | U.S. 32 | f.22 |
| scenes, extremely | ||||
| distant landscapes | ||||
| 2— | Ordinary landscapes | ¹/₂₅ | U.S. 16 | f.16 |
| showing sky, with a | ||||
| principal object in the | ||||
| 3— | Nearby landscapes | ¹/₂₅ | U.S. 8 | f.11 |
| showing little or no | ||||
| sky, groups, street | ||||
| scenes | ||||
| 4— | Portraits in the open | ¹/₂₅ | U.S. 4 | f.7.7 or f.8 |
| shade, not under trees | ||||
| or the roof of a porch; | ||||
| shaded nearby scenes | ||||
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLE
(Single Lenses)
| Groups | Folding Cameras Shutter Speed |
Stop | Box Cameras |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | ¹/₂₅ | 3 | Snapshot with middle stop |
| 2 | ¹/₂₅ | 2 | Snapshot with largest stop |
| 3 | ¹/₂₅ | 1 | Snapshot with largest stop |
| 4 | 1 second | 4 | 1 second with smallest stop |
MOVING OBJECTS. The briefest possible exposure must be given to moving objects in order that the motion may be stopped. Consequently such pictures can be taken only in bright sunlight and in most cases the largest stop opening must be used. Best results are usually obtained by taking the picture from somewhat in front of the subject and a little to one side or perhaps at about a 45 degree angle. In this way the actual movement of the subject in relation to the camera is not so apparent as at right angles, and the perspective will be more pleasing. It is necessary to work back at some little distance if the subject is moving rapidly. If the shutter speed is ¹/₁₀₀ it will be necessary to get back perhaps 75 or 100 feet. On the other hand if a focal plane shutter is being used in connection with an f.4.5 lens, then an exposure of from ¹/₅₀₀ to ¹/₁₀₀₀ will enable the worker to get somewhat closer and get sharp images of automobile races or similar subjects.
INTERIORS. Stop 16 or smaller should ordinarily be used for interiors in order to get nearby objects and those at the furthest side of the room sharp at the same time. Do not include any objects in the picture that are very close to the camera. The exposure for interiors varies widely according to different conditions but the following table for use with stop 16 (next to largest stop on single lens cameras) may be found useful as a guide:
White walls and more than one window—Bright sun outside, 4 seconds; cloudy bright, 20 seconds; hazy sun, 10 seconds; cloudy dull, 40 seconds.
White walls and only one window—Bright sun outside, 6 seconds; cloudy bright, 30 seconds; hazy sun, 15 seconds; cloudy dull, 60 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings and more than one window—Bright sun outside, 8 seconds; cloudy bright, 40 seconds; hazy sun, 20 seconds; cloudy dull, 80 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings with only one window—Bright sun outside, 12 seconds; cloudy bright, 60 seconds; hazy sun, 30 seconds; cloudy dull, 120 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and more than one window—Bright sun outside, 20 seconds; cloudy bright, 20 seconds; hazy sun, 40 seconds; cloudy dull, 2 minutes, 40 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and only one window—Bright sun outside, 40 seconds; cloudy bright, 2 minutes, 40 seconds; hazy sun, 80 seconds; cloudy dull, 5 minutes, 20 seconds.
HOME PORTRAITURE
Excellent home portraits can often be made—pictures that will reveal the personality of the subject—in the unconventional surroundings of the home. In order to have the exposure time cut down to a minimum so that the subject will not move or have a set expression, a large stop opening should be used and the subject be placed close to a window. The most pleasing results are usually obtained when the light falls at about a 45 degree angle.
Too much posing is ruinous, especially in the case of children. They appear at their best when unconscious of the presence of the camera. It is very important that neither the hands nor feet or other portions of the subject project out too much toward the camera or they will appear too large in proportion to the remainder of the body. This is particularly true when using a short focus lens and working up close to get a large image.
By following out the diagram, (Figure 6), a good plain lighting is obtained:
|
Fig. 6 |
A | Subject |
| A-1 | Direction of Face | |
| A-2 | Direction of Body | |
| B | Camera | |
| C | Reflector | |
| D | Window | |
| E | Background (if used) |
It will be noticed that the subject is placed even with the edge of the window or a little back of it and about as far into the room as the window is wide. The body is turned somewhat away from the light and then the face turned back into it until a v-shaped patch of light is noticed on the cheek. This will give roundness to the features. A sheet or newspaper may be used to reflect light onto the shadow side of the subject. Enough reflected light must be used to show detail, but if too much is used the face will appear flat.
A more difficult lighting is the one shown in Figure 7.
|
Fig. 7 |
A | Subject |
| A-1 | Direction of Face | |
| A-2 | Direction of Body | |
| C | Reflector | |
| D | Window | |
| E | Window (for general illumination) | |
| F | Background (if used) |
A back lighting of this type is much used in showing movie effects. Because of taking the picture toward a window it is much more difficult than the plain lighting. It may be necessary to use a lens hood to keep the excess light from the window from striking the lens, producing a fogged appearance.
Flashlight if properly controlled is one of the best sources of illumination for home use. The light is available on dark days and evenings, and as the flash occupies but a fraction of a second, there is not much danger of movement. The lighting should be arranged the same as shown in Figure 6, the flash taking the place of the window.