Plain English

SPELLING

LESSON 15

There is a class of words having the sound of long e, represented by the diphthong ie, and another class having the same sound represented by ei. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with ie or ei. Here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words:

• When the letter c you spy,
• Put the e before the i.

For example, in such words as deceit, receive and ceiling, the spelling is ei. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter c, the spelling is ie, as in grief, field, siege, etc.

There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as either, neither, leisure, seize and weird. Most words, however, conform to the rule—when preceded by c, ei should be used; when preceded by any other letter, ie.

Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long e. When the two letters do not have the sound of long e, as in ancient, the rule does not apply.

Monday

• Deceive
• Belief
• Conceive
• Brief
• Ceiling

Tuesday

• Field
• Receive
• Piece
• Chief
• Leisure

Wednesday

• Receipt
• Wield
• Weird
• Thief
• Perceive

Thursday

• Deceit
• Yield
• Grief
• Seize
• Conceit

Friday

• Relieve
• Neither
• Liege
• Shield
• Niece

Saturday

• Relief
• Achievement
• Reprieve
• Lien
• Siege

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 16

Dear Comrade:

We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.

So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.

But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read.

Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new—something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.

Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables.

What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

279. We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact.

The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, Men work. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, Strong, industrious, ambitious men work. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb work. I may want to tell you how they work and when they work; where they work and how much; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb work, so I say:

• The men work busily.
• The men work late.
• The men work well.
• The men work inside.
• The men work hard.
• The men work here.
• The men work now.
• The men work more.

Words like busily, hard, late, here, well, now, inside, and more, show how, when, where and how much the men work.

We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb.

Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns.

280. The word adverb means, literally, to the verb, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: The man was very busy. This lesson is too long. Here very and too are added to the adjectives busy and long to qualify their meaning.

281. You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words more and most to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here more and most are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, how much, how long, etc. In the sentence, The man is very busy, very is used to answer the question how busy. And in the sentence, The lesson is too long, the adverb too answers the question how long.

An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question how. For example; we say, The man works very hard. Here the adverb hard tells how the man works and very modifies the adverb hard, and answers the question how hard. So we have our definition of an adverb:

282. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, a word is a sign of an idea. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts.

HOW TO TELL ADVERBS

283. We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one of the following questions: How? When? Where? Why? How long? How often? How much? How far? or How little? etc. Just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence. Take the following sentence:

• He always came down too rapidly.

The word always answers the question when. So always is an adverb, describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came—He always came. Down answers the question where. So down is the adverb describing the place of the action. Rapidly answers the question how, and is the adverb describing the manner of the action. Too also answers the question how, and modifies the adverb rapidly.

Exercise 1

Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify:

1. He writes correctly.
2. She answered quickly.
3. A very wonderful future awaits us.
4. You should not speak so hastily.
5. You can speak freely here.
6. He could never wait patiently.
7. We very often make mistakes.
8. She very seldom goes there.
9. He usually walks very rapidly.
10. I have read the lesson quite carefully.
11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause.
12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today.
13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak correctly and fluently.
14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow.
15. It was more beautifully painted than the other.
16. We eagerly await the news from the front.
17. He always gladly obeyed his father.
18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception.
19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted.

Exercise 2

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs:

• slowly
• here
• now
• gently
• loudly
• never
• soon
• carefully
• nobly
• down
• seldom
• easily

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives:

• quite
• very
• more
• too
• most
• less
• nearly
• so

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs:

• too
• very
• quite
• less
• more
• most
• least
• so

CLASSES OF ADVERBS

284. There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes:

1. Adverbs of time. These answer the question when, and are such adverbs as now, then, soon, never, always, etc.

2. Adverbs of place. These answer the question where, and are such adverbs as here, there, yonder, down, above, below, etc.

3. Adverbs of manner. These answer the question how, and are such adverbs as well, ill, thus, so, slowly, hastily, etc.

4. Adverbs of degree. These answer the questions how much, how little, how far, etc., and are such adverbs as much, very, almost, scarcely, hardly, more, quite, little, etc.

5. Adverbs of cause. These answer the question why, and are such adverbs as therefore, accordingly, hence, etc.

6. Adverbs of number. These are such adverbs as first, second, third, etc.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find the adverbs of the different classes.

1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle.
2. It is much more effective to train the young.
3. He came first and remained through the entire program.
4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well.
5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches.
6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat.
7. Come down and discuss the matter with us.
8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts.
9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully.
10. He was scarcely able to tell his story.
11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan.
12. He came third in the ranks.

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

285. The adverbs how, when, where, why, whither, whence, etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs. For example:

• How did it happen?
• Where are you going?
• Whence came he?
• When did he come?
• Why did you do it?
• Whither are you going?

These adverbs, how, when, where, why, whence and whither, are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the time or place or manner of action expressed in the verb.

How may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. For example:

• How late did he stay?
• How large is the house?

In the first sentence, the adverb how modifies the adverb late, and introduces the question. In the second sentence how modifies the adjective large and introduces the question.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs how, when, where and why, to modify verbs and ask simple questions.

Write sentences using the interrogative adverb how to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question.

ADVERBS OF MODE

286. There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are such adverbs as indeed, certainly, fairly, truly, surely, perhaps and possibly. These adverbs really modify the entire sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is made,—whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For example:

• Surely you will not leave me.
• Truly I cannot understand the matter as you do.
• Perhaps he knows no better.
• Indeed, I cannot go with you.

Here, these adverbs, truly, surely, perhaps and indeed, show the manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a class by themselves and called adverbs of mode. Mode means literally manner, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like slowly or wisely or well or ill. They express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole sentence.

PHRASE ADVERBS

287. We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such phrases as of course, of late, for good, of old, at all, at length, by and by, over and over, again and again, through and through, hand in hand, ere long, in vain, to and fro, up and down, as usual, by far, at last, at least, in general, in short, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

288. Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: better, little, late, far, hard, further, first, last, long, short, much, more and high. For example:

• The late news verifies our statement.
• The man came late to his work.

In the first sentence, the word late is used as an adjective modifying the noun news. In the second sentence, the word late is used as an adverb to modify the verb came.

289. You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule: Adjectives modify only nouns and pronouns, and the one essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it is always joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or pronoun.

You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the work which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, as is the case with adverbs of mode.

290. Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix ly, or by changing ble to bly. For example: honestly, rarely, dearly, ably, nobly, feebly. But all words that end in ly are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in ly also, as, kingly, courtly, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in ly. Some are adverbs and some adjectives.

1. The boy was very little.
2. It was a little early to arrive.
3. It was a hard lesson.
4. She works hard every day.
5. I read the first book.
6. I read the book first then gave it to him.
7. He went to a high mountain.
8. The eagle flew high in the air.
9. We saw clearly the lovely picture.
10. He is a wonderfully jolly man.
11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride.
12. He speaks slowly and clearly.
13. They are very cleanly in their habits.

NOUNS AS ADVERBS

291. Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example:

• They were gone a year.
• He talked an hour.
• They will return next week.
• They went south for the winter.
• They traveled 100 miles.
• The wheat is a foot high.
• The man weighed 200 pounds.

In these sentences, the nouns, year, miles, hour, foot, week, pounds and south are used as adverbs. Remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence.

Exercise 6

Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify:

SPELLING

LESSON 16

The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having come into the language from different sources. These words are called homonyms.

Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning. For example:

• Plane, plain;
• write, right.

Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example:

• Allow, permit;
• lazy, idle.

Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound, but different meanings.

Notice especially principal and principle. Perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. Principle is a noun. Principal is an adjective. You can remember the correct spelling by remembering that adjective begins with a. Principal, the adjective, is spelled with an a, pal.

Notice also the distinction between two, to and too. Look these up carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words. Also notice the words no and know and here and hear.

Monday

• Buy—by
• Fair—fare
• Meat—meet
• Our—hour
• Pain—pane

Tuesday

• Deer—dear
• Hear—here
• New—knew
• No—know
• Peace—piece

Wednesday

• Two—to—too
• Pair—pare—pear
• Birth—berth
• Ore—oar
• Ought—aught

Thursday

• Seen—scene
• Miner—minor
• Aloud—allowed
• Stare—stair
• Would—wood

Friday

• Bear—bare
• Ascent—assent
• Sight—site—cite
• Rain—reign—rein
• Rote—wrote

Saturday

• Great—grate
• Foul—fowl
• Least—leased
• Principle—principal
• Sale—sail

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 17

Dear Comrade:

We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week.

Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word.

We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word.

After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented sounds. The appeal was through the ear gate of man, not through the eye gate.

Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,—letters that represent sounds. Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

292. You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way, just as adjectives, by adding er and est; for example:

293. Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of more and most or less and least, just as adjectives do; for example:

Or, in the descending comparison:

294. The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well to memorize this list:

Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as here, there, now, today, hence, therefore, etc.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree:

1. He came too late to get his letter.
2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me.
3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well informed.
4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time.
5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the subject.
6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession of the facts.
7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly.
8. I am too weary to go farther today.
9. This is the least expensive of them all.
10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him.
11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend.
12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency.
13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first.
14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive them.

POSITION OF ADVERBS

295. When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies. For example:

• She is very studious.
• Results come rather slowly.
• It is quite evident.
• He speaks too rapidly.

When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb after the verb. For example:

• The boat arrived safely.
• The man came quickly.
• The boy ran fast.
• The teacher spoke hastily.

But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object. As, for example:

• He willingly gave his consent to the proposition.
• She gladly wrote the letter which we requested.
• A soldier always obeys the command of a superior officer.

When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object. As, for example:

• I study my lessons carefully.
• He wrote a letter hastily.

The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as:

• I studied carefully the lessons given for this month.
• He wrote hastily a short letter to his son.

When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase. For example:

• The boy has always worked.
• The workers will then understand.
• He will surely have arrived by that time.

When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb, as for example:

• The work can be quickly finished.
• The obstacles can be readily overcome.
• The lesson must be carefully prepared.
• The workers must be thoroughly organized.

When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second, as for example:

• I often stop there.
• He usually walks very rapidly.
• They soon learn to work rapidly.

If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, third; as:

• He usually comes here quickly.

Exercise 2

Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence:

1. I only saw the President once.
2. Such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity.
3. No man has ever so much wealth that he does not want more.
4. It seems that the workers can be never aroused.
5. I want to briefly state the reason for my action.
6. I shall be glad to help you always.
7. I only mention a few of the facts.
8. He nearly walked to town.
9. We are told that the Japanese chiefly live upon rice.
10. They expected them to sign a treaty daily.
11. Having nearly lost all his money he feared again to venture.

ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES

296. You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the modifying word between to and the verb. For example: We ought to bravely stand for our rights. The correct form of this is: We ought to stand bravely for our rights.

But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign.

Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way; for example, when we say: To almost succeed is not enough, we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea, if we try to put the adverb almost in any other position. This is also true in such phrases as to far exceed, to more than counterbalance, to fully appreciate, and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately.

So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign to. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately.

COMMON ERRORS

297. The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, only, also and merely, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning of the sentence. For example:

Only the address can be written on this side. We mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side.

The address can only be written on this side. We mean that the address cannot be printed, but must be written.

The address can be written only on this side. We mean that it cannot be written on any other side, but on this side only.

So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended.

Never use an adjective for an adverb. One common error is using an adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, use an adverb. For example, He speaks slow and plain. This is incorrect. The sentence should be, He speaks slowly and plainly. Watch this carefully. It is a very common error.

Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb. Never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb. For example, you would say:

• The sea was calm.

Here we use an adjective in the predicate, for we are describing the appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: He spoke calmly, we use the adverb calmly, for the verb spoke expresses an action on the part of the subject, and the adverb calmly describes that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: The water looks clear, but, We see clearly. She appears truthful. They answered truthfully. She looked sweet. She smiled sweetly.

With all forms of the verb be, as am, is, are, was, were, have been, has been, will be, etc., use an adjective in the predicate; as, He is glad. I am happy. They were eager. They will be sad. Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like look, smell, taste, feel, appear and seem. For example: He looks bad. It smells good. The candy tastes sweet. The man feels fine today. She appears anxious. He seems weary.

Never use two negative words in the same sentence. The second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. For example, never say:

• I don't want no education.
• He didn't have no money.
• Don't say nothing to nobody.
• She never goes nowhere.
• He won't say nothing to you.
• He does not know nothing about it.
• He never stops for nothing.
• The stingy man gives nothing to nobody.

In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; not and no, or not and nothing, or never and no, or never and nothing. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these sentences are:

• I don't want any education.
• He didn't have any money.
• Don't say anything to any one.
• She never goes anywhere.
• He won't say anything to you.
• He knows nothing about it.
• He never stops for anything.
• The stingy man gives nothing to any one.

Where to place the negative adverb, not. In English we do not use the negative adverb not with the common verb form, but when we use not in a sentence, we use the auxiliary do. For example, we do not say:

• I like it not.
• They think not so.
• He loves me not.
• We strive not to succeed.

Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, we say:

• I do not like it.
• They do not think so.
• He does not love me.
• We do not strive to succeed.

We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that. We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that.] For example, we say:

• This here lesson is shorter than that there one was.

This should be: This lesson is shorter than that one.

• Bring me that there book.
• This here man will not listen.

These sentences should read:

• Bring me that book.
• This man will not listen.

Never use here and there in this manner.

Another common mistake is using most for almost.

For example, we say:

• We are most there.
• I see her most every day.

These sentences should read:

• We are almost there.
• I see her almost every day.

Most is the superlative degree of much, and should be used only in that meaning.

We often use the adjective real in place of very or quite, to modify an adverb or an adjective.

For example, we say:

• I was real glad to know it.
• She looked real nice.
• You must come real soon.

Say instead:

• I am very glad to know it.
• She looked very nice.
• You must come quite soon.

Really is the adverb form of the adjective real. You might have said:

• I am really glad to know it.

But never use real when you mean very or quite or really.

We use the adjective some many times when we should use the adverb somewhat. For example, we say:

• I am some anxious to hear from him.
• I was some tired after my trip.

What we intended to say was:

• I am somewhat anxious to hear from him.
• I was somewhat tired after my trip.

Do not use what for when you mean why. Do not say:

• What did you do that for?

Or worse still,

• What for did you do that?

Say:

• Why did you do that?

Do not use worse in place of more. Do not say:

• I want to go worse than I ever did.

Say:

• I want to go more than I ever did.

Observe the distinction between the words further and farther. Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:

• He could go no farther that day.
• We will go farther into the matter some other time.

Further means more. For example:

• He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.

Never use good as an adverb. Good is always an adjective. Well is the adverb form. Good and well are compared in the same way, good, better, best, and well, better, best. So better and best can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but good is always an adjective. Do not say, He talks good. Say, He talks well. Note that ill is both an adjective and an adverb and that illy is always incorrect.

Exercise 3

Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong.

1. Come quick, I need you.
2. The boy feels badly.
3. Give me that there pencil.
4. I am some hungry.
5. The people learn slow.
6. He never stopped for nothing.
7. What did you say that for?
8. This here machine won't run.
9. I make a mistake most every time.
10. Watch careful every word.
11. The man works good.
12. The tone sounds harsh.
13. I don't want no dinner.
14. I hope it comes real soon.
15. I want to learn worse than ever.
16. She looked lovely.
17. She smiled sweet.
18. He sees good for one so old.
19. She answered correct.
20. He won't say nothing about it.
21. I will be real glad to see you.
22. That tastes sweetly.
23. The man acted too hasty.
24. We had most reached home.
25. They ride too rapid.

DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS

298. Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, very, awfully, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is very, awfully sweet. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them.

Exercise 4

Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences:

1. He looked glad—gladly when I told him the news.
2. Slaves have always been treated harsh—harshly.
3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft—softly.
4. The lecturer was tolerable—tolerably well informed.
5. Speak slower—more slowly so I can understand you.
6. The evening bells sound sweet—sweetly.
7. The house appears comfortable—comfortably and pleasant—pleasantly.
8. If you will come quick—quickly you can hear the music.
9. I was exceeding—exceedingly glad to hear from you.
10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward—awkwardly.
11. The young lady looked beautiful—beautifully and she sang beautiful—beautifully.
12. I looked quick—quickly in the direction of the sound.
13. The sun is shining bright—brightly today and the grass looks green—greenly.

SPELLING

LESSON 17

In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality.

For example from the adjective happy, we form the noun happiness, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective happy, by the addition of the suffix ness. We use this suffix ness quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix ty as in security, formed from the adjective secure, changing the e to i and adding the suffix ty. When the word ends in t we sometimes add only y as in honesty, derived from the adjective honest.

You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example:

Running, from the verb run; settlement, from the verb settle.

In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either ness, y, ty or tion. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes ment and ing.

Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.

Monday

• Stately
• Forgetful
• Real
• Concise
• Noble

Tuesday

• Slender
• Empty
• Equal
• Righteous
• Deliberate

Wednesday

• Submissive
• Dreadful
• Eager
• Sincere
• Resolute

Thursday

• Enlist
• Defile
• Adorn
• Nourish
• Commence

Friday

• Content
• Adjust
• Induce
• Indict
• Adjourn

Saturday

• Discourage
• Refine
• Acquire
• Enrich
• Infringe

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 18

Dear Comrade:

Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well.

Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.

The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.

Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.

This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society.

So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

A GROUP OF WORDS

299. We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent—with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,—that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.

300. The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:

• Strong men, or, men of strength.
• City men, or, men from the city.
• Jobless men, or, men without jobs.
• Moneyed men, or, men with money.

These groups of words like, of strength, from the city, without jobs, and with money, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, strong, city, jobless and moneyed.

You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a phrase; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, of strength, modifies the noun men, just as the adjective strong modifies the noun men. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, adjective phrases, for they are groups of words used as adjectives.

Exercise 1

Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases:

1. Strong men know no fear.
2. She bought a Turkish rug.
3. He followed the river bed.
4. Fashionable women are parasites.
5. He left on his homeward journey.
6. Sensible men readily understand their economic slavery.
7. Intelligent people will not always submit to robbery.
8. Senseless arguments cannot convince us of the truth.

USED AS ADVERBS

301. These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example:

• The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity.
• The man works now, or, The man works at this time.
• The man works here, or, The man works at this place.

In these sentences rapidly, now and here are single adverbs modifying the verb work. The phrases, with rapidity, at this time, and at this place, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, rapidly, now and here. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, adverb phrases.

We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way:

• Rockefeller is excessively rich; or, Rockefeller is rich to excess.
• He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak; or, He is perfect in body but weak in mind.

In the sentences above, the adverb excessively modifies the adjective rich; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, to excess. In the sentence, He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak, the adverb bodily modifies the adjective perfect and the adverb mentally modifies the adjective weak. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, in body and in mind. These phrases modify the adjectives perfect and weak, just as do the single adverbs bodily and mentally.

302. We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example:

• He bought the large house by the river.
• The man on the train is going to the city.
• He came from the country.

It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, by the river, on the train, to the city, and from the country. You could not say the river house; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house by the river, yet the phrase by the river modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective large. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun house, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.

Exercise 2

Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs?

Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning.

1. Men lived in caves long ago.
2. Man's discovery of fire was the beginning of industry.
3. After this discovery, men lived in groups.
4. The work of the world is done by machinery.
5. The workers of Europe were betrayed.
6. They are fighting for their country.
7. The struggle for markets is the cause of war.
8. The history of the world records the struggle of the workers.
9. The idea of democracy is equal opportunity for all.
10. The invention of the printing press placed knowledge within the reach of the masses.
11. If you will study with diligence you can learn with ease.
12. This knowledge will be of great value to you.
13. Diplomacy means that the plans of nations are made in secret.
14. The men in the factory are all paid by the month.
15. They are afraid to take a trip through Europe at this time.

Exercise 3

Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences:

• The men in the trenches are fighting bravely.
• An uneducated man is easily exploited.
• Our educational system is inadequate.
• The skilled workers must be organized.
• Careless men endanger the lives of others.
• The plans have been carefully laid.
• Ambitious men often trample on the rights of others.
• Shall our education be controlled by wealthy men?
• We want to live courageously.
• We want to face the future fearlessly.
• We want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor.
• By constant practice we can learn to speak effectively.
• This book will be a valuable addition to your library.
• The number of unemployed men constantly increases.
• The men mastered each step thoroughly as they proceeded.
• In order to express one's self eloquently it is necessary to think clearly.
• We must consecrate ourselves completely to the cause of humanity.
• A kind act is its own reward.
• Experienced workers can more easily secure positions.
• He spoke thoughtlessly but the people listened eagerly.
• The soldier was rewarded for his heroic deed.
• He is an honorable man and I am not surprised at this brave act.
• A prudent man should be chosen to fill that important office.