Plain English

SPELLING

LESSON 19

There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions.

1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such as concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, during, according, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote regarding these facts, or I wrote you in regard to these facts. I mentioned them all excepting the last, or, I mentioned them all with the exception of the last. I have gone according to the directions, or, I have gone in accord with the directions.

2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing a to other parts of speech, as along, around, abroad, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix a is really from the preposition on.

3. We have also compound prepositions formed:

By uniting two prepositions, as into, within, throughout, etc.

By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, as beside, below and beyond.

We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verb withstand, derived from the preposition with and the verb stand, has almost the opposite meaning from stand with.

Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning.

Monday

• Upset
• Withdraw
• Outrun
• Overlook
• Understand

Tuesday

• Oversee
• Undergo
• Outnumber
• Withhold
• Overcome

Wednesday

• Overflow
• Undertake
• Overreach
• Overthrow
• Outshine

Thursday

• Overhear
• Withstand
• Overgrow
• Overhaul
• Overrun

Friday

• Concerning
• Regarding
• Respecting
• According
• Excepting

Saturday

• Against
• Throughout
• Around
• Between
• Beneath

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 20

Dear Comrade:

We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.

The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.

Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.

In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.

There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CONJUNCTIONS

328. You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,—the conjunction.

A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:

• Shall we be men or machines?
• We must struggle for ourselves and for our children.
• We pray for peace but furnish ammunition for war.

The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.

You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.

Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:

1. The birds are singing and spring is here.
2. We talk of peace, but war still rages.
3. The unemployed cannot find work and they are dying of hunger.
4. We believed in war for defense and every nation is now fighting for defense.
5. We believe in education and we are struggling for universal education.
6. The old order is fast passing and the new order is rapidly appearing.
7. Profit is the keynote of the present, but service shall be the keynote of the future.
8. All children should be in school, but thousands must earn their bread.

Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 2

Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:

• One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.
• As a result we have our public schools of today.
• Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.
• Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.
• Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy.
• Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.
• Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions.
• There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.
• The public school system has been made to serve the master class.
• We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.
• Have we realized the ideal?
• Is there universal education?
• Is there education for every child beneath the flag?
• The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.
• The buildings have cost millions.
• The courses of study are many.
• They are varied.
• They are elaborate.
• But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.
• The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

329. Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

• We are united and we shall win.
• When we are united, we shall win.

In the first sentence the conjunction and connects the two clauses, we are united and we shall win. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction when, instead of the conjunction and, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, We are united and we shall win, and When we are united we shall win.

By connecting these two statements with the conjunction when, we have made of the clause, we are united, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase shall win. It tells when we shall win, just as much as if we had used an adverb to modify the verb phrase, and had said, We shall win tomorrow, instead of, We shall win when we are united.

So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction and, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction when, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

330. So the conjunctions like and are called co-ordinate conjunctions. Co-ordinate means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like when are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. Sub-ordinate means of inferior rank or order.

So we have our definitions:

331. A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.

A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.

A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

332. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank. The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; and, but, or, nor.

333. But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:

• I am not in favor of the motion, nevertheless I shall vote for it.
• The deputies voted for the war appropriation, notwithstanding they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.
• I did not believe in the change, however I did not oppose it.

334. The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, else, than, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, otherwise, however, so and furthermore.

These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.

335. We often use these conjunctions, and also, and, but, or, and nor, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.

336. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.

NOUNS

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the subject of a verb. As:

• Death and disaster follow in the wake of war.

In this sentence, death is just as much the subject of the verb follow as is the word disaster, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the compound subject, for it consists of two simple subjects.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a verb.

• He studies history and science.

In this sentence the words history and science are both used as objects of the verb studies.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a preposition.

• He called for the letters and the papers.

In this sentence letters and papers are both objects of the preposition for, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and.

Exercise 3

Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.

1. John and Henry are going home.
2. Music and painting are fine arts.
3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions.
4. The time calls for brave men and women.
5. We struggle for truth and freedom.
6. Will you study English or arithmetic?
7. Education and organization are necessary for success.
8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution.
9. We demand justice and liberty.
10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class.

PRONOUNS

337. Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.

These are used in the same way as nouns,—either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;—if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;—if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, He told the story to her and I. Here her is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition to; the pronoun I connected with her by the use of the conjunction and is also the object of the preposition to, and the object form should be used. You would not say, He told the story to I. The sentence should read, He told the story to her and me.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the subject of a sentence, as for example:

• She and I arrived today.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the verb, as for example:

• Did you call her or me?

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the preposition, as:

• He gave that to you and me.

Exercise 4

Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.

1. He and I are old friends.
2. Did you ask him or me?
3. They promised him and I that they would come.
4. Find the place for she and me.
5. Me and him will get it for you and she.
6. She and I will go with you.
7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves.
8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.

VERBS

338. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs. Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.

• He reads and studies constantly.

In this sentence reads and studies are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction and. They have a single subject, the pronoun he.

This is called a compound predicate.

In the sentence, He reads constantly, we have a simple predicate, the single verb reads; but in the sentence, He reads and studies constantly, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs reads and studies. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:

• John and James read and study constantly.

In this sentence John and James is the compound subject of both the verbs, read and study. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

Exercise 5

Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.

1. The days come and go in a ceaseless round.
2. The brave man dreams and dares to live the dream.
3. The coward dreams but dares not live the dream.
4. We produce splendidly but distribute miserably.
5. The bought press twists and distorts the facts.
6. Only a traitor aids or supports the enemy.
7. We agitate and educate for the cause of liberty.

ADJECTIVES

339. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.

In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:

A simple, clear and concise course has been prepared.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers.
2. Education should be both universal and free.
3. They are faithful and loyal comrades.
4. This was only our just and legal right.
5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar.
6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task.
7. We must be brave and true.
8. He lived a noble and courageous life.
9. All was old and cold and mournful.
10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.

ADVERBS

340. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs. This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:

• He spoke fluently and eloquently.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:

1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties.
2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave.
3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly.
4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children.
5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season.
6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously.
7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.
8. He writes easily and rapidly.
9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed.
10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably.
11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm.
12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.

PHRASES

341. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.

Verb Phrases

342. Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:

• The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.
• We have made and are making a fierce struggle for a free press.

In this last sentence the two verb phrases, have made and are making are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:

• The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

In this sentence the helping verb is belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle controlled is used. It is understood that we mean,

The People's College is owned and is controlled by the working class.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.

1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas.
2. We have written but have received no answer.
3. Will you come or stay?
4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery.
5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights.
6. We must arouse and educate our comrades.
7. We have sought but have not found.

Prepositional Phrases

343. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.

These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:

• The books in the book case and on the table belong to me.

These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:

• He works with speed and with ease.

Exercise 9

Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.

1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light.
2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill.
3. The first men lived in groups and in clans.
4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people.
5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism.
6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king.
7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts.
8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution.
9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press.
10. You can pay either by the week or by the month.
11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority.

Infinitives and Participles

344. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.

Exercise 10

In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare.
2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute.
3. To be or not to be, that is the question.
4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station.
5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own.
6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses.
7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children.
8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics.

CLAUSES

345. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank. For example:

• The floods came and the winds blew.

Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, and. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:

• The rain and snow fell, and the wind blew a mighty gale.

Here the first clause in the compound sentence, the rain and snow fell, contains a compound subject, rain and snow.

• The boys are running and shouting, and the girls are gathering flowers.

Here the first clause has a compound predicate, are running and shouting. The second and connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.

CORRELATIVES

346. Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as both, and; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, both, either, neither, or whether, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:

• I have both seen and heard him.
• They will join us either in April or in May.
• Labor has received neither liberty nor justice.
• Whether to go forward or to retreat was the problem.

Note that nor is always the proper correlative to use with neither and also with the negatives not and never when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

• There are thousands in this country who can neither read nor write.
• Neither you nor I can foretell the future.
• He will not write nor should you.
• Capital punishment is nothing more nor less than legalized murder.
• We shall never lower our colors nor retreat.

Or is always used with the correlative either. For example:

• We will either come or write you.
• Either he was mistaken or he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions and, but, or and nor, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of and as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.

SPELLING

LESSON 20

We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:

1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix ly, as for example; chiefly, truly, really, lately, etc.

2. By changing ble to bly, as in ably, nobly, etc.

3. By adding the suffix ward, as in forward, upward, skyward, downward, homeward, etc.

4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix a to adjectives and nouns, as ahead, afoot, afresh, also by adding the prefix be, as in besides, beyond.

We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding s where it does not rightfully belong; as, anywheres, everywheres, backwards, forwards, towards, upwards, downwards, afterwards, homewards, etc. All of these words should be written without the s.

We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as sometime, henceforth, forever, overheard, outside, etc.

In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix ly.

Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in ly. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.

Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.

Monday

• Haughty—Humble
• Wise—Ignorant
• Careful—Careless
• Firm—Wavering

Tuesday

• Honest—Deceitful
• Fearful—Fearless
• Punctual—Tardy
• Identical—Different

Wednesday

• Thoughtful—Thoughtless
• Rich—Poor
• Attentive—Inattentive
• Industrious—Lazy

Thursday

• Quickly
• Lovely
• Clearly
• Cleanly

Friday

• Homely
• Truly
• Courtly
• Nearly

Saturday

• Otherwise
• Herewith
• Sometime
• Always

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 21

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

347. We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

• He came quickly.
• He came on time.
• He came when he was called.

In the first sentence the word quickly is an adverb modifying the verb came and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the second sentence, the phrase on time is an adverb phrase modifying the verb came, and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the third sentence, the clause when he was called, also answers the question when, and tells when he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase on time, for the phrase on time does not contain a subject and a predicate.

348. The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause always contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, when he was called, he is the subject and was called is the predicate, and when is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb came, which it modifies. The clause he came, and the clause when he was called, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, when he was called, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause he came, by describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came. So the clause, when he was called, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

349. A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

350. Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell how, when, where or why the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

351. Adverb clause of time. These clauses will answer the question when and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, before, since, as, while, until, when, after and as soon as. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

• We waited until you came.
• We waited after you came.
• We waited as you came.
• We waited before you came.
• We waited since you came.
• We left while you were gone.
• We left when you were gone.
• We left as soon as you were gone.

352. Adverb clause of place. These answer the question where, and are introduced by the conjunctions, where, whence, whither.

• I will go where you go.
• The wind blows whither it listeth.
• He went whence he came.

353. Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason. These will answer the question why. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, because, for, since, as, whereas, inasmuch as, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

• I will come because you expect me.
• I will come since you expect me.
• I will come as you expect me.
• I will come for you expect me.
• I will come inasmuch as you expect me.

354. Adverb clauses of manner. These clauses will answer the question how, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, as, as if, as though, etc.

• Study as though you were in earnest.
• Come as if you had been called.
• Do as I say, not as I do.

In these clauses of manner, introduced by as if, and as though, were is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

• He writes as if he were informed of the facts.
• They talk as though they were confident of success.
• You act as though I were your slave.

355. Adverb clauses of comparison. These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions than and as. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by than and as. For example: He is taller than I. The complete sentence would be: He is taller than I am. He is not so tall as I. Here the sentence would be: He is not so tall as I am.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: I am not so tall as him. The correct form is: I am not so tall as he. The complete sentence would be: I am not so tall as he is, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb is, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the subject or of the object form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: I admire them as much as he. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, I admire them as much as him, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, I care more for you than he, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, I care more for you than him, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

356. Adverb clauses of condition. These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, if, provided, supposing, unless, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, and whether. For example:

• I will come if you need me.
• I will come provided you need me.
• I will go notwithstanding you need me.
• I will not go unless I am called.
• He will not go except he is called.
• He will not go though he is called.
• He came, otherwise I would go.
• He will go whether you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with if, though or unless are joined to clauses containing might, could, would or should, the verb were is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

• If this were true, I should know it.
• Unless I were positive, I would not say so.
• Though our leader were lost, yet we would not despair.
• If he were here, he would explain it himself.
• If I were with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, if is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

• Were he here, he would deny these slanders.
• Were he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.
• Were this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb be used instead of is, in clauses of this kind introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, etc. For example:

• If it be true, I will hear it.
• Though he be guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by if, unless, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

• If they are willing, we will join them.
• Unless he comes, I shall not leave.
• If it rains, we will not go.

357. Adverb clauses expressing purpose. These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, that, in order that and lest. For example:

• Take good care that you understand this lesson.
• I will go today in order that I may meet him.
• Watch these carefully lest they be stolen.
• Read the labor press that you may know the truth.

Notice that that, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means in order that. For example, the sentence above might read:

• Read the labor press in order that you may know the truth.

358. Adverb clauses expressing result. These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction that, as for example:

• They were so late that I could not go.

SUMMARY

359. We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. Time. Answer the question when.
2. Place. Answer the question where.
3. Cause or reason. Answer the question why.
4. Manner. Answer the question how.
5. Comparison. Used to compare.
6. Condition. Answer the question on what condition.
7. Purpose. Answer the question for what purpose.
8. Result. Answer the question to what result.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question when, where, why, how, on what condition, for what purpose, to what result. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that we might be able to communicate with one another.
2. The International failed in the crisis because it had no definite war program.
3. We will fail if we have no definite program.
4. If labor were united, we could destroy wage slavery.
5. When the people understand, they will no longer submit.
6. Labor cannot win until it learns solidarity.
7. After the terrible war is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together.
8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the war has been declared.
9. If we knew the facts we could not be misled.
10. Inform yourself before you seek to teach others.
11. We must unite in order that we may possess power.
12. It is more than the heart can bear.
13. May you have courage to dare ere you have ceased to dream.
14. If we remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.
15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because it is our own.
16. Though we should lose the strike we will not despair.
17. The battle waged so fiercely that thousands were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

360. There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

As if, as though, but also, but likewise, so that, except that, inasmuch as, notwithstanding that, in order that, as well as, as far as, so far as, as little as, provided that, seeing that, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

361. We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.

A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

362. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

• I know who he is.
• He asked, "what do you want?"
• I know where it is.

In the first sentence, who he is, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb know. It tells what I know, and is the object of the verb know,—just as if I had said; I know the facts. In this sentence the noun, facts, is the object of the verb know.

In the second sentence, He asked, "what do you want?" the noun clause what do you want is the object of the verb asked, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun what.

We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.

In the last sentence, I know where it is, the noun clause where it is, is the object of the verb know, and is introduced by the conjunction where.

363. Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, where, when, whence, whither, whether, how, why, and also by the subordinate conjunction that. For example:

• I know where I can find it.
• I inquired when he would arrive.
• We do not know whence it cometh nor whither it goeth.
• Ask whether the train has gone.
• I don't know how I can find you.
• I cannot understand why he does so.
• I believe that he is honest.

In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:

• You do not listen to what is said.
• He talked to me about what had happened.
• He told me to come to where he was.

364. Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:

• That he is innocent is admitted by all.
• That he was guilty has been proven.
• Why he should do this is very strange.
• How we are to live is the great problem.

In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction that. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:

• It is admitted by all that he is innocent.
• It has been proven that he was guilty.

You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.

But now we have this little pronoun it used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. It is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.

365. Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:

• The general opinion is that he is innocent.
• The problem is how we may accomplish this quickly.
• The question was why any one should believe such statements.

In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs is and was, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, Socialism is a science. War is murder.

366. A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:

• The fact, that such a law had been passed, alters the situation.
• His motion, that the matter should be laid on the table, was adopted.

In the first sentence, the clause, that such a law had been passed, is placed beside the noun fact and explains what that fact is. The clause, that the matter should be laid on the table, is in apposition to and explains the noun motion.

These noun clauses are used in apposition.

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:

1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men?
2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in Mexico?
3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the land.
4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials.
5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist.
6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased.
7. We shall win......we have the courage.
8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle.
9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved.
10. Humanity will be free......labor is free.
11. Let us do our duty......we understand it.
12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with woman.
13. We must struggle......we would be free.
14. ......we shout for peace, we support war.
15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we know......labor is the foundation of all.
16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best......it has.
17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights.
18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others.
19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for themselves this world will be civilized.

Exercise 4

Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?