Plain English

SPELLING

LESSON 27

We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are in, un and mis. The prefix in used with an adjective or adverb means not; for example, insane means not sane; incorrect means not correct, etc.

The prefix in used with a noun means lack of; for example, inexperience means lack of experience; inability means lack of ability, etc.

In words beginning with m or p, in, meaning not or lack of, is changed to im. This is done for the sake of euphony. The n does not unite readily with the sound of m or p. So we do not say inmodest and inpartial, but immodest and impartial.

The prefix un, used with participles, means not; for example, unprepared means not prepared; unguarded means not guarded, etc.

The prefix un used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for example, uncover means to take off the cover; untwist means to reverse the process of the twisting.

The prefix un used with adjectives means not; for example, uncertain means not certain; uncommon means not common.

The prefix mis used with nouns or verbs, means wrong. For example, mistreatment means wrong treatment; to misspell means to spell wrong.

Add the prefix in to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix in to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix im to the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix un to the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix un to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix mis to the nouns and verbs in Saturday's lesson.

Monday

• Tolerance
• Frequency
• Competence
• Efficiency
• Coherence

Tuesday

• Convenient
• Expedient
• Famous
• Adequate
• Solvent

Wednesday

• Pertinent
• Morality
• Patience
• Moderate
• Pious

Thursday

• Balanced
• Biased
• Gracious
• Stable
• Solicited

Friday

• Burden
• Veil
• Fasten
• Screw
• Furl

Saturday

• Construe
• Apprehension
• Inform
• Guide
• Judge

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 28

Dear Comrade:

We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written language.

There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals.

The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc.

Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to your vocabulary every day.

Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed.

Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, by the power of association, since the head was considered the most conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, the head of the nation.

Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against the opposition, etc.

This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first as physical then as mental or spiritual.

This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content of the words which you use.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CAPITAL LETTERS

464. In our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language readily betrays our ignorance.

465. There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also.

This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage.

But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters.

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

466. Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.

When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought.

467. Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter. Sometimes in poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the second line does not begin with a capital letter.

468. Use a capital for every proper noun. This includes names of persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc.

469. The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions. When these words simply refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a capital.

470. The pronoun I and the interjection O should always be capitals. Never write the pronoun I with a small i.

471. Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter. Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: the Marxian philosophy, the Darwinian theory, Indian money, Japanese labor, etc.

472. Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters. For example: January, February, August, Monday, Tuesday, Friday, etc.

473. Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity. For example: God, Jehovah, Christ, Jesus, etc. It is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ.

474. Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties, also all adjectives derived from them. As for example: Christian Church, Methodism, Republican Party, Mohammedan, Socialist, etc.

475. Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital. In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of war, fame, death, hope, fancy, liberty, etc., as persons. Whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter.

476. Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition. In titles the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The articles, the, a and an are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title.

477. Use a capital to begin every direct quotation. The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: He said, "I will come." This is a direct quotation, but He said that he would come, is an indirect quotation.

478. Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question. For example: Resolved; That the United States should democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the question of war?

479. Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars. For example;

480. Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital. For example, President Wilson, Doctor Smith, Professor Locke. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for example: The society has had several presidents. But if you use the title to take the place of the person's name, for example: The President read the message to Congress, always use a capital.

481. Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address. For example: My dear Father, My dear Mother, My dear Comrade, Dear Aunt Emma, Dear Friend, Dear Fellow Workers, etc. Also in conversation.

• Are you coming with me, Mother?
• What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith?

When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would write:

• Your sincere friend.
• Your loving brother.

Or in conversation:

• I asked my mother to go with me.
• My brother wrote me concerning the matter.

482. Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital. For example:

• Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central Market, etc.

These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a capital letter. For example:

• Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, etc.

483. The words state and territory, when they refer to particular divisions of the country, should be capitalized. For example:

• The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, etc.

State and government are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names. For example:

• The State is based on exploitation.
• The Government has issued an edict of war.

We do not use a capital in such expressions as:

• Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc.

484. In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles. These should be capitalized only when they begin a line.

Exercise 1

Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital:

john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, american.

Exercise 2

Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter.

1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am i, o man.
2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts.
3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live and abide forever.
4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of ice they came to listen unto his words.
5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto.
6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite.
7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become involved in the war.
8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of congress.
9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising his right of free speech.
10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. the abbreviation for california.
11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working class.
12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the national democratic convention.
13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play called "war brides."
14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more war.
15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating thought.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and determine the reason for the use of every capital:

As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and make beautiful this life.—Frank Walsh.

"When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess names." From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, 1913.

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

485. There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, for example:

• B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g.

When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment.

An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period. As for example:

• Bldg. Blvd. Mfg.

These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations.

COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS

486. We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially those which have long names. Short names like March, April, May, June and July, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations, Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. Days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows: Sun., Mon., Tues., Wed., Thur., Fri., Sat. Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space.

Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Jr., Sr., are never spelled out, but are always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find Doctor and Professor abbreviated to Dr., Prof. This is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full.

487. We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: Geo., Chas., Thos., Wm., etc. But it is always much better to write these names out in full: George, Charles, Thomas, William, etc.

Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them. Jim, Charley, Tom, and Bill are not abbreviations but nicknames.

In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows:

• Alabama, Ala.
• Arizona, Ariz.
• Arkansas, Ark.
• California, Cal.
• Colorado, Colo.
• Connecticut, Conn.
• Delaware, Del.
• District of Columbia, D. C.
• Florida, Fla.
• Georgia, Ga.
• Idaho, Ida.
• Illinois, Ill.
• Indiana, Ind.
• Iowa, Ia.
• Kansas, Kan.
• Kentucky, Ky.
• Louisiana, La.
• Maine, Me.
• Maryland, Md.
• Massachusetts, Mass.
• Michigan, Mich.
• Minnesota, Minn.
• Mississippi, Miss.
• Missouri, Mo.
• Montana, Mont.
• Nebraska, Neb.
• Nevada, Nev.
• New Hampshire, N. H.
• New Jersey, N. J.
• New Mexico, N. M.
• New York, N. Y.
• North Carolina, N. C.
• North Dakota, N. D.
• Ohio, O.
• Oklahoma, Okla.
• Oregon, Ore.
• Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna.
• Rhode Island, R. I.
• South Carolina, S. C.
• South Dakota, S. D.
• Tennessee, Tenn.
• Texas, Tex.
• Vermont, Vt.
• Virginia, Va.
• Washington, Wash.
• West Virginia, W. Va.
• Wisconsin, Wis.
• Wyoming, Wyo.

488. Use a. m. and p. m. after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for example, do not say:

• I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m.

Say rather:

• I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this evening.

The letters a. m. are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for before noon; and p. m. for post meridiem, meaning afternoon.

489. Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full, as, May 28, 1915, instead of 5-28-15.

In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business correspondence:

• @ for at
• acct. for account
• agt. for agent
• amt. for amount
• ans. for answer
• asst. for assistant
• atty. for attorney
• av. for average
• bal. for balance
• bbl. for barrel
• bdl. for bundle
• bro. for brother
• bros. for brothers
• blk. for black
• bls. for bales
• bu. or bush. for bushels
• Co. for company
• chgd. for charged
• C. O. D. for "cash on delivery"
• cr. creditor
• cts. cents
• cwt. for hundred weight
• cu. for cubic
• do. for the same
• dr. for debtor
• doz. for dozen
• ea. for "each"
• et al. for "and others"
• e. g. for example
• etc. for "and so forth"
• ft. for foot or feet
• frt. freight
• f. o. b. "free on board"
• gal. gallon
• guar. for guaranty
• hdkfs. for handkerchiefs
• h. p. horse power
• in. for inches
• ins. for insurance
• inst. for this month
• i. e. for "that is"
• Jr. for junior
• lb. for pound
• memo. for memorandum
• Mon. for Monday
• mo. for month
• mos. for months
• mdse. for merchandise
• mfg. for manufacturing
• Mss. for manuscript
• no. for number
• N. B. for take notice
• O. K. for "all correct"
• oz. for ounce
• % for per cent
• pp. pages
• pr. for pair
• pt. for pint
• pk. for peck
• prox. for next month
• qt. for quart
• recd. for received
• sec. for second
• Sec. for secretary
• Sr. for senior
• Supt. for superintendent
• ult. for last month
• via by way of
• viz. namely
• vol. for volume
• wt. for weight
• yd. for yard
• yds. for yards
• yr. for year

Exercise 4

Write the proper abbreviations for the following words:

• Building
• Charles
• Boulevard
• Tuesday
• Arkansas
• Mississippi
• Foot
• Virginia
• Georgia
• Senior
• By way of
• Per cent
• Charged
• Avenue
• October
• Delaware
• Professor
• Thursday
• Colorado
• Kansas
• Handkerchiefs
• January
• Secretary
• Superintendent
• Received
• That is
• Free on board
• Monday
• Oklahoma
• July
• Thomas
• California
• Company
• Account
• Friday
• Merchandise
• Number
• All correct
• Cash on delivery
• And so forth
• Colonel
• Maine
• August
• William
• Missouri
• Brothers
• Amount
• Wyoming

SPELLING

LESSON 28

There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up.

Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling.

While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning.

Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.

It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning.

For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym.

Monday

• Abundant
• Plenty
•  
• Precarious
• Uncertain
•  
• Behavior
• Conduct

Tuesday

• Abuse
• Invective
•  
• Hateful
• Odious
•  
• Praise
• Applause

Wednesday

• Sufficient
• Enough
•  
• Refuge
• Asylum
•  
• Achieve
• Attain

Thursday

• Insolent
• Revenge
• Curb
• Repudiate
• Censure
• Regret

Friday

• Prosperity
• Subterfuge
• Event
• Observe
• Portion
• Destroy

Saturday

• Talkative
• Indolent
• Profit
• Volunteer
• Cordial
• Enormous

There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in meaning, which we very often use incorrectly.

Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning:

• Roger's essay—assay won him praise.
• The assay—essay indicated the quantity of gold in the metal.
• The completion—completeness of the course entitled me to a Diploma.
• The completion—completeness of the arrangements fills us with hope of success.
• Confidants—confidence often betray us.
• The business world is built upon confidants—confidence.
• The conscience—consciousness of a religious person is very sensitive.
• The class struggle develops class conscience—consciousness.
• The strikers listened to unwise counsel—council.
• The council—counsel refused the franchise.
• You knew he was a cultured—cultivated man, the moment you met him.
• It is a highly cultured—cultivated plant.
• I asked her for the recipe—receipt for making cake.
• He gave her a receipt—recipe for the money.
• Emigration—-immigration has reduced the population of Servia.
• Emigration—immigration is flooding the United States with cheap labor.
• Edison's discovery—invention of the storage battery was a momentous event.
• The discovery—invention of gold in Alaska attracted the attention of the world.
• The state placed a limitation—limit upon the sale of liquor within certain limits—limitations.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 29

Dear Comrade:

The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good while we have them.

Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been through college.

These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really educated.

Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be surprised at the result in your life.

Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of observation.

Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do our part in the fight.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PUNCTUATION

490. Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our thought.

Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word punctum which means a point. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, etc.

Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to make its meaning clear.

Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence.

491. In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, The International failed, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or I might say, The International failed, with such an inflection, that you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks.

So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will naturally use fewer marks of punctuation.

492. You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the punctuation is exceedingly important.

493. One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that in that place, you should have a punctuation mark.

494. The following are the chief marks of punctuation:

THE COMMA

495. The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the thought.

There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would have upon the meaning of the sentence.

496. The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.

RULE 1.

497. Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when the conjunctions are omitted.

WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES

498. The words which form a series, separated by a comma may be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following sentences:

• Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child.
• He visited every city, town and village.
• The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible.
• All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages shall become an everlasting reality.
• He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause.
• If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious.

PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES

499. Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example:

• Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class struggle has proceeded.
• The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil.

CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES

500. Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example:

• Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.
• Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise.

RULE 2.

501. Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Note carefully the following examples:

• Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace.
• War having been declared, the troops were mobilized.
• No, I cannot believe you.
• Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention.
• We can, of course, give you the information you desire.

RULE 3.

502. Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words they modify.

Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural order and omit the commas.

• Longingly and anxiously, he waited.
• With this exception, the figures are correct.
• The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air.
• The waves came rolling in, white with foam.
• To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks.
• Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet.

RULE 4.

503. Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate conjunction. For example:

• I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required explanation.

RULE 5.

504. The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be indicated by a comma. Sometimes in writing for effect or to give emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example:

• Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man.

Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is indicated by the use of the comma.

RULE 6.

505. Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma. For example:

• Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all."
• Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school."

RULE 7.

506. Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three figures each by the use of commas. For example:

• The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000.
• According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged in gainful occupations in the United States.

Exercise 1

Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places:

1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life.
2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or plutocracy.
3. Man is the master of nature of law of life.
4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own.
5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the fruits of poverty.
6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and perseveringly.
7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of the disinherited.
8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.
9. First let us consider the main question.
10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order.
11. We the workers of the world must unite.
12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our class?
13. You have not it seems understood the issue.
14. Of all our needs education is the greatest.
15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro.
16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good knowledge of English.
17. We plead for education universal and free.
18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense the third good humor and the fourth wit.
19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers by the workers.
20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the United States is 18521002.
21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year of high school.

THE SEMI-COLON

507. The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the thought, and the period, the completion of the thought.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON

508. The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. For example: