The Project Gutenberg eBook of Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates, 3rd ed. Volume 4

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates, 3rd ed. Volume 4

Author: George Grote

Release date: August 7, 2012 [eBook #40438]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Ed Brandon as part of the on-line Grote Project

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLATO AND THE OTHER COMPANIONS OF SOKRATES, 3RD ED. VOLUME 4 ***

PLATO, AND THE OTHER COMPANIONS OF SOKRATES.

PLATO,

and the

OTHER COMPANIONS OF SOKRATES.

by

GEORGE GROTE,

author of the ‘history of greece’.

A NEW EDITION.

IN FOUR VOLUMES.

Vol. IV.

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1888.

The right of Translation is reserved.

CONTENTS.




CHAPTER XXXV.
PLATONIC REPUBLIC — ABSTRACT.
Declared theme of the Republic — Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it	1
Personages of the dialogue	2
Views of Kephalus about old age	ib.
Definition of Justice by Simonides — It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him	ib.
Objections to it by Sokrates — There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth	3
Explanation by Polemarchus — Farther interrogations by Sokrates — Justice renders what is proper and suitable: but how? in what cases, proper? Under what circumstances is Justice useful?	4
The just man, being good for keeping property guarded, must also be good for stealing property — Analogies cited	5
Justice consists in doing good to friends, evil to enemies — But how, if a man mistakes who his friends are, and makes friends of bad men?	6
Justice consists in doing good to your friend, if really a good man: hurt to your enemy, with the like proviso. Sokrates affirms that the just man will do no hurt to any one. Definition of Simonides rejected	ib.
Thrasymachus takes up the dialogue — Repulsive portrait drawn of him	7
Violence of Thrasymachus — Subdued manner of Sokrates — Conditions of useful colloquy	ib.
Definition given by Thrasymachus — Justice is that which is advantageous to the more powerful. Comments by Sokrates. What if the powerful man mistakes his own advantage?	8
Correction by Thrasymachus — if the Ruler mistakes, he is pro tanto no Ruler — The Ruler, quâ Ruler — quâ Craftsman — is infallible	9
Reply by Sokrates — The Ruler, quâ infallible Craftsman, studies the interest of those whom he governs, and not his own interest	ib.
Thrasymachus denies this — Justice is the good of another. The just many are worse off than the unjust One, and are forced to submit to his superior strength	10
Position laid for the subsequent debate and exposition	11
Arguments of Sokrates — Injustice is a source of weakness — Every multitude must observe justice among themselves, in order to avoid perpetual quarrels. The same about any single individual: if he is unjust, he will be at war with himself, and perpetually weak	ib.
Farther argument of Sokrates — The just man is happy, the unjust man miserable — Thrasymachus is confuted and silenced. Sokrates complains that he does not yet know what Justice is	ib.
Glaukon intimates that he is not satisfied with the proof, though he agrees in the opinion expressed by Sokrates. Tripartite distribution of Good — To which of the three heads does Justice belong?	12
Glaukon undertakes to set forth the case against Sokrates, though professing not to agree with it	ib.
Pleading of Glaukon. Justice is in the nature of a compromise for all — a medium between what is best and what is worst	13
Comparison of the happiness of the just man derived from his justice alone, when others are unjust to him with that of the unjust man under parallel circumstances	14
Pleading of Adeimantus on the same side. He cites advice given by fathers to their sons, recommending just behaviour by reason of its consequences	15
Nobody recommends Justice per se, but only by reason of its consequences	16
Adeimantus calls upon Sokrates to recommend and enforce Justice on its own grounds, and to explain how Justice in itself benefits the mind of the just man	17
Relation of Glaukon and Adeimantus to Thrasymachus	18
Statement of the question as it stands after the speeches of Glaukon and Adeimantus. What Sokrates undertakes to prove	ib.
Position to be proved by Sokrates — Justice makes the just man happy per se, whatever be its results	20
Argument of Sokrates to show what Justice is — Assumed analogy between the city and the individual	ib.
Fundamental principle, to which communities of mankind owe their origin — Reciprocity of want and service between individuals — No individual can suffice to himself	ib.
Moderate equipment of a sound and healthy city — Few wants	22
Enlargement of the city — Multiplied wants and services. First origin of war and strife with neighbours — It arises out of these multiplied wants	ib.
Separate class of soldiers or Guardians. One man cannot do well more than one business. Character required in the Guardians — Mildness at home with pugnacity against enemies	23
Peculiar education necessary, musical as well as gymnastical	23
Musical education, by fictions as well as by truth. Fictions addressed to the young: the religious legends now circulating are often pernicious: censorship necessary	24
Orthodox type to be laid down: all poets are required to conform their legends to it. The Gods are causes of nothing but good: therefore they are causes of few things. Great preponderance of actual evil	ib.
The Guardians must not fear death. No terrible descriptions of Hades must be presented to them: no intense sorrow, nor violent nor sensual passion, must be re counted either of Gods or Heroes	25
Type for all narratives respecting men	26
Style of narratives. The poet must not practise variety of imitation: he must not speak in the name of bad characters	ib.
Rhythm and Melody regulated. None but simple and grave music allowed: only the Dorian and Phrygian moods, with the lyre and harp	ib.
Effect of musical training of the mind — makes youth love the Beautiful and hate the Ugly	27
Training of the body — simple and sober. No refined medical art allowed. Wounds or temporary ailments treated; but sickly frames cannot be kept alive	28
Value of Gymnastic in imparting courage to the mind — Gymnastic and Music necessary to correct each other	29
Out of the Guardians a few of the very best must be chosen as Elders or Rulers — highly educated and severely tested	ib.
Fundamental creed required to be planted in the minds of all the citizens respecting their breed and relationship	30
How is such a fiction to be accredited in the first instance? Difficulty extreme, of first beginning; but if once accredited, it will easily transmit itself by tradition	31
Guardians to reside in barracks and mess together; to have no private property or home; to be maintained by contribution from the people	32
If the Guardians fail in these precautions, and acquire private interests, the city will be ruined	32
Complete unity of the city, every man performing his own special function	33
The maintenance of the city depends upon that of the habits, character, and education of the Guardians	34
Religious legislation — Consult the Delphian Apollo	ib.
The city is now constituted as a good city — that is, wise, courageous, temperate, just. Where is its Justice?	ib.
First, where is the wisdom of the city? It resides in the few elder Rulers	ib.
Where is the Courage? In the body of Guardians or Soldiers	35
Where is the Temperance? It resides in all and each, Rulers, Guardians, and People. Superiors rule and Inferiors obey	ib.
Where is the Justice? In all and each of them also. It consists in each performing his own special function, and not meddling with the function of the others	36
Injustice arises when any one part of the city interferes with the functions of the other part, or undertakes double functions	37
Analogy of the city to the individual — Each man is tripartite, having in his mind Reason, Energy, Appetite. These three elements are distinct, and often conflicting	ib.
Reason, Energy, Appetite, in the individual — analogous to Rulers, Guardians, Craftsmen in the city. Reason is to rule Appetite. Energy assists Reason in ruling it	39
A man is just when these different parts of his mind exercise their appropriate functions without hindrance	ib.
Justice and Injustice in the mind — what health and disease are in the body	40
Original question now resumed — Does Justice make a man happy, and Injustice make him miserable, apart from all consequences? Answer — Yes	ib.
Glaukon requires farther explanation about the condition of the Guardians, in regard to sexual and family ties	41
Men and women will live together and perform the duties of Guardians alike — They will receive the same gymnastic and musical training	41
Nature does not prescribe any distribution of functions between men and women. Women are inferior to men in every thing. The best women are equal to second-best men	42
Community of life and relations between the male and female Guardians. Temporary marriages arranged by contrivance of the Elders. No separate families	ib.
Regulations about age, for procreation — Children brought up under public authority	44
Perfect communion of sentiment and interest among the Guardians — Causes of pleasure and pain the same to all, like parts of the same organism	ib.
Harmony — absence of conflicting interest — assured scale of equal comfort — consequent happiness — among the Guardians	45
In case of war both sexes will go together to battle — Rewards to distinguished warriors	46
War against Hellenic enemies to be carried on mildly — Hellens are all by nature kinsmen	47
Question — How is the scheme practicable? It is difficult, yet practicable on one condition — That philosophy and political power should come into the same hands	ib.
Characteristic marks of the philosopher — He contemplates and knows Entia or unchangeable Forms, as distinguished from fluctuating particulars or Fientia	48
Ens alone can be known — Non-Ens is unknowable. That which is midway between Ens and Non-Ens (particulars) is matter only of opinion. Ordinary men attain nothing beyond opinion	49
Particulars fluctuate: they are sometimes just or beautiful, sometimes unjust or ugly. Forms or Entia alone remain constant	50
The many cannot discern or admit the reality of Forms — Their minds are always fluctuating among particulars	51
The philosopher will be ardent for all varieties of knowledge — His excellent moral attributes — He will be trained to capacity for active life	ib.
Adeimantus does not dispute the conclusion, but remarks that it is at variance with actual facts — Existing philosophers are either worthless pretenders, or when they are good, useless	52
Sokrates admits the fact to be so — His simile of the able steersman on shipboard, among a disobedient crew	53
The uselessness of the true philosopher is the fault of the citizen, who will not invoke his guidance	54
The great qualities required to form a philosopher, become sources of perversion, under a misguiding public opinion	ib.
Mistake of supposing that such perversion arises from the Sophists. Irresistible effect of the public opinion generally, in tempting or forcing a dissenter into orthodoxy	55
The Sophists and other private teachers accept the prevalent orthodoxy, and conform their teaching to it	56
The people generally hate philosophy — A youth who aspires to it will be hated by the people, and persecuted even by his own relatives	57
The really great minds are thus driven away from the path of philosophy — which is left to empty pretenders	58
Rare cases in which a highly qualified philosopher remains — Being at variance with public opinion, he can achieve nothing, and is lucky if he can obtain safety by silence	ib.
The philosopher must have a community suitable to him, and worthy of him	59
It must be such a community as Sokrates has been describing — But means must be taken to keep up a perpetual succession of philosophers as Rulers	60
Proper manner of teaching philosophy — Not to begin at a very early age	ib.
If the multitude could once see a real, perfect, philosopher, they could not fail to love him: but this never happens	61
Course of training in the Platonic city, for imparting philosophy to the Rulers. They must be taught to ascend to the Idea of Good. But what is Good?	ib.
Ancient disputes upon this point, though every one yearns after Good. Some say Intelligence; some say Pleasure. Neither is satisfactory	62
Adeimantus asks what Sokrates says. Sokrates says that he can not answer: but he compares it by a metaphor to the Sun	63
The Idea of Good rules the ideal or intelligible world, as the Sun rules the sensible or visible world	64
To the intelligible world there are applicable two distinct modes of procedure — the Geometrical — the Dialectic. Geometrical procedure assumes diagrams	65
Dialectic procedure assumes nothing. It departs from the highest Form, and steps gradually down to the lowest, without meddling with any thing except Forms	66
Two distinct grades of Cognition — Direct or Superior — Nous — Indirect or Inferior — Dianoia	ib.
Two distinct grades of Opinion also in the Sensible World — Faith or Belief — Conjecture	67
Distinction between the philosopher and the unphilosophical public, illustrated by the simile of the Cave, and the captives imprisoned therein	ib.
Daylight of philosophy contrasted with the firelight and shadows of the Cave	69
Purpose of a philosophical training, to turn a man round from facing the bad light of the Cave to face the daylight of philosophy, and to see the eternal Forms	ib.
Those who have emerged from the Cave into full daylight amidst eternal Forms, must be forced to come down again and undertake active duties — Their reluctance to do this	70
Studies serving as introduction to philosophy — Arithmetic, its awakening power — shock to the mind by felt contradiction	ib.
Perplexity arising from the One and Many, stimulates the mind to an intellectual effort for clearing it up	72
Geometry conducts the mind to wards Universal Ens	ib.
Astronomy — how useful — not useful as now taught — must be studied by ideal figures, not by observation	73
Acoustics, in like manner — The student will be thus conducted to the highest of all studies — Dialectic: and to the region of pure intelligible Forms	74
Question by Glaukon — What is the Dialectic Power? Sokrates declares that he cannot answer with certainty, and that Glaukon could not follow him if he did	75
He answers partially — It is the consummation of all the sciences, raising the student to the contemplation of pure Forms, and especially to that of the highest Form — Good	ib.
The Synoptic view peculiar to the Dialectician	76
Scale and duration of various studies for the Guardians, from youth upwards	ib.
All these studies, and this education, are common to females as well as males	77
First formation of the Platonic city — how brought about: difficult, but not impossible	78
The city thus formed will last long, but not for ever. After a certain time, it will begin to degenerate. Stages of its degeneracy	ib.
1. Timocracy and the timocratical individual. 2 Oligarchy, and the oligarchical individual	79
3. Democracy, and the democratical individual	80
4. Passage from democracy to despotism. Character of the despotic city	81
Despotic individual corresponding to that city	82
The city has thus passed by four stages, from best to worse. Question — How are Happiness and Misery apportioned among them?	ib.
Misery of the despotised city	83
Supreme Misery of the despotising individual	ib.
Conclusion — The Model city and the individual corresponding to it, are the happiest of all — That which is farthest removed from it, is the most miserable of all	84
The Just Man is happy in and through his Justice, however he may be treated by others. The Unjust Man, miserable	84
Other arguments proving the same conclusion — Pleasures of Intelligence are the best of all pleasures	ib.
They are the only pleasures completely true and pure. Comparison of pleasure and pain with neutrality. Prevalent illusions	86
Most men know nothing of true and pure pleasure. Simile of the Kosmos — Absolute height and depth	87
Nourishment of the mind partakes more of real essence than nourishment of the body — Replenishment of the mind imparts fuller pleasure than replenishment of the body	88
Comparative worthlessness of the pleasures of Appetite and Ambition, when measured against those of Intelligence	89
The Just Man will be happy from his justice — He will look only to the good order of his own mind — He will stand aloof from public affairs, in cities as now constituted	90
Tenth Book — Censure of the poets is renewed — Mischiefs of imitation generally, as deceptive — Imitation from imitation	91
Censure of Homer — He is falsely extolled as educator of the Hellenic world. He and other poets only deceive their hearers	92
The poet chiefly appeals to emotions — Mischiefs of such eloquent appeals, as disturbing the rational government of the mind	ib.
Ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry — Plato fights for philosophy, though his feelings are strongly enlisted for poetry	93
Immortality of the soul affirmed and sustained by argument — Total number of souls always the same	ib.
Recapitulation — The Just Man will be happy, both from his justice and from its consequences, both here and hereafter	94



CHAPTER XXXVI.
REPUBLIC — REMARKS ON ITS MAIN THESIS.
Summary of the preceding chapter	95
Title of the Republic, of ancient date, but only a partial indication of its contents	96
Parallelism between the Commonwealth and the Individual	96
Each of them a whole, composed of parts distinct in function and unequal in merit	97
End proposed by Plato. Happiness of the Commonwealth. Happiness of the individual. Conditions of happiness	98
Peculiar view of Justice taken by Plato	99
Pleadings of Glaukon and Adeimantus	ib.
The arguments which they enforce were not invented by the Sophists, but were the received views anterior to Plato	100
Argument of Sokrates to refute them. Sentiments in which it originates. Panegyric on Justice	101
Different senses of justice — wider and narrower sense	102
Plato’s sense of the word Justice or Virtue — self-regarding	104
He represents the motives to it, as arising from the internal happiness of the just agents	105
His theory departs more widely from the truth than that which he opposes. Argument of Adeimantus discussed	106
A Reciprocity of rights and duties between men in social life — different feelings towards one and towards the other	109
Plato’s own theory, respecting the genesis of society, is based on reciprocity	111
Antithesis and correlation of obligation and right. Necessity of keeping the two ideas together, as the basis of any theory respecting society	112
Characteristic feature of the Platonic Commonwealth — specialization of services to that function for which each man is fit — will not apply to one individual separately	114
Plato has not made good his refutation — the thesis which he impugns is true	116
Statement of the real issue between him and his opponents	117
He himself misrepresents this issue — he describes his opponents as enemies of justice	ib.
Farther arguments of Plato in support of his thesis. Comparison of three different characters of men	118
His arguments do not go to the point which he professes to aim at	120
Exaggerated parallelism between the Commonwealth and the individual man	121
Second Argument of Plato to prove the happiness of the just man — He now recalls his previous concession, and assumes that the just man will receive just treatment and esteem from others	ib.
Dependence of the happiness of the individual on the society in which he is placed	123
Inconsistency of affirming general positions respecting the happiness of the just man, in all societies without distinction	124
Qualified sense in which only this can be done	125
Question — Whether the just man is orthodox or dissenter in his society? — important in discussing whether he is happy	126
Comparison of the position of Sokrates at Athens, with that of his accusers	ib.
Imperfect ethical basis on which Plato has conducted the discussion in the Republic	127
Plato in Republic is preacher, inculcating useful beliefs — not philosopher, establishing scientific theory. State of Just and Unjust Man in the Platonic Commonwealth	129
Comparative happiness of the two in actual communities. Plato is dissatisfied with it — This is his motive for recasting society on his own principles	130
Confusion between the preacher and the philosopher in the Platonic Republic	131
Remarks on the contrast between ethical theory and ethical precepts	ib.



CHAPTER XXXVII.
REPUBLIC — REMARKS ON THE PLATONIC COMMONWEALTH.
Double purpose of the Platonic Republic — ethical and political	133
Plato recognises the generating principle of human society — reciprocity of need and service. Particular direction which he gives to this principle	133
The four cardinal virtues are assumed as constituting the whole of Good or Virtue, where each of these virtues resides	134
First mention of these, as an exhaustive classification, in ethical theory. Plato effaces the distinction between Temperance and Justice	135
All the four are here assumed as certain and determinate, though in former dialogues they appear indeterminate and full of unsolved difficulties	137
Difficulties left unsolved, but overleaped by Plato	138
Ethical and political theory combined by Plato, treated apart by Aristotle	ib.
Platonic Commonwealth — only an outline — partially filled up	139
Absolute rule of a few philosophers — Careful and peculiar training of the Guardians	ib.
Comparison of Plato with Xenophon — Cyropædia — Œconomicus	141
Both of them combine polity with education — temporal with spiritual	142
Differences between them — Character of Cyrus	ib.
Xenophontic genius for command — Practical training — Sokratic principles applied in Persian training	144
Plato does not build upon an individual hero. Platonic training compared with Xenophontic	146
Platonic type of character compared with Xenophontic, is like the Athenian compared with the Spartan	147
Professional soldiers are the proper modern standard of comparison with the regulations of Plato and Xenophon	148
Music and Gymnastic — multifarious and varied effects of music	149
Great influence of the poets and their works on education	ib.
Plato’s idea of the purpose which poetry and music ought to serve in education	151
He declares war against most of the traditional and consecrated poetry, as mischievous	ib.
Strict limits imposed by Plato on poets	153
His view of the purposes of fiction — little distinction between fiction and truth. His censures upon Homer and the tragedians	154
Type of character prescribed by Plato, to which all poets must conform, in tales about Gods and Heroes	155
Position of Plato as an innovator on the received faith and traditions. Fictions indispensable to the Platonic Commonwealth	156
Difficulty of procuring first admission for fictions. Ease with which they perpetuate themselves after having been once admitted	158
Views entertained by Kritias and others, that the religious doctrines generally believed had originated with law-givers, for useful purposes	159
Main points of dissent between Plato and his countrymen, in respect to religious doctrine	161
Theology of Plato compared with that of Epikurus — Neither of them satisfied the exigencies of a believing religious mind of that day	ib.
Plato conceives the Gods according to the exigencies of his own mind — complete discord with those of the popular mind	163
Repugnance of ordinary Athenians in regard to the criticism of Sokrates on the religious legends	165
Aristophanes connects the idea of immorality with the freethinkers and their wicked misinterpretations	ib.
Heresies ascribed to Sokrates by his own friends — Unpopularity of his name from this circumstance	168
Restrictions imposed by Plato upon musical modes and reciters	ib.
All these restrictions intended for the emotional training of the Guardians	169
Regulations for the life of the Guardians, especially the prohibition of separate property and family	ib.
Purpose of Plato in these regulations	ib.
Common life, education, drill, collective life, and duties, for Guardians of both sexes. Views of Plato respecting the female character and aptitudes	171
His arguments against the ordinary doctrine	172
Opponents appealed to nature as an authority against Plato. He invokes Nature on his own side against them	173
Collective family relations and denominations among the Guardians	174
Restrictions upon sexual intercourse — Purposes of such restrictions	175
Regulations about marriages and family	176
Procreative powers of individual Guardians required to be held at the disposal of the rulers, for purity of breed	177
Purpose to create an intimate and equal sympathy among all the Guardians, but to prevent exclusive sympathy of particular members	178
Platonic scheme — partial communism	179
Soldiership as a separate profession has acquired greater development in modern times	180
Spartan institutions — great impression which they produced upon speculative Greek minds	181
Plans of these speculative minds compared with Spartan — Different types of character contemplated	182
Plato carries abstraction farther than Xenophon or Aristotle	183
Anxiety shown by Plato for the good treatment of the Demos, greater than that shown by Xenophon and Aristotle	ib.
In Aristotle’s theory, the Demos are not considered as members of the Commonwealth, but as adjuncts	184
Objection urged by Aristotle against the Platonic Republic, that it will be two cities. Spiritual pride of the Guardians, contempt for the Demos	ib.
Plato’s scheme fails, mainly because he provides no training for the Demos	186
Principle of Aristotle — That every citizen belongs to the city, not to himself — applied by Plato to women	187
Aristotle declares the Platonic Commonwealth impossible — In what sense this is true	189
The real impossibility of the Platonic Commonwealth, arises from the fact that discordant sentiments are already established	191
Plato has strong feelings of right and wrong about sexual intercourse, but referring to different objects	192
Different sentiment which would grow up in the Platonic Commonwealth respecting the sexual relations	193
What Nature prescribes in regard to the relations of the two sexes — Direct contradiction between Plato and Aristotle	194
Opinion of Plato respecting the capacities of women, and the training proper for women, are maintained in the Leges, as well as in the Republic. Ancient legends harmonising with this opinion	195
In a Commonwealth like the Platonic, the influence of Aphroditê would probably have been reduced to a minimum	197
Other purposes of Plato — limitation of number of Guardians — common to Aristotle also	198
Law of population expounded by Malthus — Three distinct checks to population — alternative open between preventive and positive	ib.
Plato and Aristotle saw the same law as Malthus, but arranged the facts under a different point of view	202
Regulations of Plato and Aristotle as to number of births and newborn children	ib.
Such regulations disapproved and forbidden by modern sentiment. Variability of ethical sentiment as to objects approved or disapproved	203
Plato and Aristotle required subordination of impulse to reason and duty — they applied this to the procreative impulse, as to others	204
Training of the few select philosophers to act as chiefs	205
Comprehensive curriculum for aspirants to philosophy — consummation by means of Dialectic	206
Valuable remarks on the effects of these preparatory studies	207
Differences between the Republic and other dialogues — no mention of reminiscence nor of the Elenchus	ib.
Different view taken by Plato in the Republic about Dialectic — and different place assigned to it	208
Contradiction with the spirit of other dialogues — Parmenidês, &c.	209
Contradiction with the character and declarations of Sokrates	210
The remarks here made upon the effect of Dialectic upon youth coincide with the accusation of Melêtus against Sokrates	211
Contrast between the real Sokrates, as a dissenter at Athens, and the Platonic Sokrates, framer and dictator of the Platonic Republic	ib.
Idea of Good — The Chiefs alone know what it is — If they did not they would be unfit for their functions	212
What is the Good? Plato does not know; but he requires the Chiefs to know it. Without this the Republic would be a failure	213



CHAPTER XXXVIII.
TIMÆUS AND KRITIAS.
Persons and scheme of the Timæus and Kritias	215
The Timæus is the earliest ancient physical theory, which we possess in the words of its author	216
Position and character of the Pythagorean Timæus	ib.
Poetical imagination displayed by Plato. He pretends to nothing more than probability. Contrast with Sokrates, Isokrates, Xenophon	217
Fundamental distinction between Ens and Fientia	219
Postulates of Plato. The Demiurgus — The Eternal Ideas — Chaotic Materia or Fundamentum. The Kosmos is a living being and a God	220
The Demiurgus not a Creator — The Kosmos arises from his operating upon the random movements of Necessity. He cannot controul necessity — he only persuades	ib.
Meaning of Necessity in Plato	221
Process of demiurgic construction — The total Kosmos comes logically first, constructed on the model of the Αὐτοζῶον	223
Body of the Kosmos, perfectly spherical — its rotations	225
Soul of the Kosmos — its component ingredients — stretched from centre to circumference	ib.
Regular or measured Time — began with the Kosmos	227
Divine tenants of the Kosmos. Primary and Visible Gods — Stars and Heavenly Bodies	229
Secondary and generated Gods — Plato’s dictum respecting them. His acquiescence in tradition	230
Remarks on Plato’s Canon of Belief	231
Address and order of the Demiurgus to the generated Gods	233
Preparations for the construction of man. Conjunction of three souls and one body	ib.
Proceedings of the generated Gods — they fabricate the cranium, as miniature of the Kosmos, with the rational soul rotating within it	235
The cranium is mounted on a tall body — six varieties of motion — organs of sense. Vision — Light	236
Principal advantages of sight and hearing. Observations of the rotation of the Kosmos	237
The Kosmos is product of joint action of Reason and Necessity. The four visible and tangible elements are not primitive	238
Forms or Ideas and Materia Prima — Forms of the Elements — Place, or Receptivity	ib.
Primordial Chaos — Effect of intervention by the Demiurgus	240
Geometrical theory of the elements — fundamental triangles — regular solids	ib.
Varieties of each element	242
Construction of man imposed by the Demiurgus upon the secondary Gods. Triple Soul. Distribution thereof in the body	243
Functions of the heart and lungs. Thoracic soul	245
Abdominal Soul — difficulty of controuling it — functions of the liver	ib.
The liver is made the seat of the prophetic agency. Function of the spleen	246
Length of the intestinal canal, in order that food might not be frequently needed	247
Bone — Flesh — Marrow	ib.
Nails — Mouth — Teeth. Plants produced for nutrition of man	248
General view of Diseases and their Causes	249
Diseases of mind — wickedness is a disease — no man is voluntarily wicked	ib.
Badness of mind arises from body	250
Preservative and healing agencies against disease — well-regulated exercise, of mind and body proportionally	250
Treatment proper for mind alone, apart from body — supremacy of the rational soul must be cultivated	251
We must study and understand the rotations of the Kosmos — this is the way to amend the rotations of the rational soul	252
Construction of women, birds, quadrupeds, fishes, &c., all from the degradation of primitive man	ib.
Large range of topics introduced in the Timæus	254
The Demiurgus of the Platonic Timæus — how conceived by other philosophers of the same century	ib.
Adopted and welcomed by the Alexandrine Jews, as a parallel to the Mosaic Genesis	256
Physiology of the Platonic Timæus — subordinate to Plato’s views of ethical teleology. Triple soul — each soul at once material and mental	257
Triplicity of the soul — espoused afterwards by Galen	258
Admiration of Galen for Plato — his agreement with Plato, and his dissension from Plato — his improved physiology	259
Physiology and Pathology of Plato — compared with that of Aristotle and the Hippokratic treatises	260
Contrast between the admiration of Plato for the constructors of the Kosmos, and the defective results which he describes	262
Degeneration of the real tenants of Earth from their primitive type	263
Close of the Timæus. Plato turns away from the shameful results, and reverts to the glorification of the primitive types	264
Kritias: a fragment	265
Proœmium to Timæus. Intended Tetralogy for the Republic. The Kritias was third piece in that Tetralogy	ib.
Subject of the Kritias. Solon and the Egyptian priests. Citizens of Platonic Republic are identified with ancient Athenians	266
Plato professes that what he is about to recount is matter of history, recorded by Egyptian priests	268
Description of the vast island of Atlantis and its powerful kings	ib.
Corruption and wickedness of the Atlantid people	269
Conjectures as to what the Platonic Kritias would have been — an ethical epic in prose	ib.
Plato represents the epic Kritias as matter of recorded history	270



CHAPTER XXXIX.
LEGES AND EPINOMIS.
Leges, the longest of Plato’s works — Persons of the dialogue	272
Abandonment of Plato’s philosophical projects prior to the Leges	273
Untoward circumstances of Plato’s later life — His altered tone in regard to philosophy	ib.
General comparison of Leges with Plato’s earlier works	275
Scene of the Leges, not in Athens, but in Krete. Persons Kretan and Spartan, comparatively illiterate	277
Gymnastic training, military drill, and public mess, in Krete and Sparta	279
Difference between Leges and Republic, illustrated by reference to the Politikus	280
Large proportion of preliminary discussions and didactic exhortation in the Leges	281
Scope of the discussion laid down by the Athenian speaker — The Spartan institutions are framed only for war — This is narrow and erroneous	282
Principles on which the institutions of a state ought to be defended — You must show that its ethical purpose and working is good	284
Religious and ethical character postulated by Plato for a community	ib.
Endurance of pain enforced as a part of the public discipline at Sparta	285
Why are not the citizens tested in like manner, in regard to resistance against the seductions of pleasure?	ib.
Drunkenness forbidden at Sparta, and blamed by the Spartan converser. The Athenian proceeds to inquire how far such unqualified prohibition is justifiable	286
Description of Sokrates in the Symposion — his self-command under abundant potations	287
Sokrates — an ideal of self-command, both as to pain and as to pleasure	288
Trials for testing the self-controul of the citizen, under the influence of wine. Dionysiac banquets, under a sober president	289
The gifts of Dionysus may, by precautions, be rendered useful — Desultory manner of Plato	ib.
Theory of ethical and æsthetical education — Training of the emotions of youth through the influence of the Muses, Apollo, and Dionysus. Choric practice and ceremonies	290
Music and dancing — imitation of the voice and movements of brave and virtuous men. Youth must be taught to take delight in this	291
Bad musical exhibitions and poetry forbidden by the lawgiver. Songs and dances must be consecrated by public authority. Prizes at the musical festivals to be awarded by select judges	292
The Spartan and Kretan agree with the Athenian, that poets must be kept under a strict censorship. But they do not agree as to what the poets are required to conform to	ib.
Ethical creed laid down by the Athenian — Poets required to conform to it	294
The Spartan and Kretan do not agree with him	296
Chorus of Elders are required to set an example in keeping up the purity of the music prescribed	297
The Elders require the stimulus of wine, in order to go through the choric duties with spirit	ib.
Peculiar views of Plato about intoxication	298
General ethical doctrine held by Plato in Leges	299
Pleasure — Good — Happiness — What is the relation between them?	ib.
Comparison of the doctrine laid down in Leges	300
Doctrine in Leges about Pleasure and Good — approximates more nearly to the Protagoras than to Gorgias and Philêbus	301
Comparison of Leges with Republic and Gorgias	302
Plato here mistrusts the goodness of his own proof. He falls back upon useful fiction	303
Deliberate ethical fiction employed as means of governing	304
Importance of music and chorus as an engine of teaching for Plato. Views of Xenophon and Aristotle compared	305
Historical retrospect as to the growth of cities — Frequent destruction of established communities, with only a small remnant left	307
Historical or legendary retrospect — The Trojan war — The return of the Herakleids	308
Difficulties of government — Conflicts about command — Seven distinct titles to command exist among mankind, all equally natural, and liable to conflict	309
Imprudence of founding government upon any one of these titles separately — Governments of Argos and Messênê ruined by the single principle — Sparta avoided it	310
Plato casts Hellenic legend into accordance with his own political theories	311
Persia and Athens compared — Excess of despotism. Excess of liberty	312
Cyrus and Darius — Bad training of sons of kings	ib.
Changes for the worse in government of Athens, after the Persian invasion of Greece	313
This change began in music, and the poets introduced new modes of composition — they appealed to the sentiment of the people, and corrupted them	314
Danger of changes in the national music — declared by Damon, the musical teacher	315
Plato’s aversion to the tragic and comic poetry at Athens	316
This aversion peculiar to himself, not shared either by oligarchical politicians, or by other philosophers	317
Doctrines of Plato in this prefatory matter	318
Compared with those of the Republic and of the Xenophontic Cyropædia	319
Constructive scheme — Plato’s new point of view	320
New Colony to be founded in Krete — its general conditions	ib.
The Athenian declares that he will not merely promulgate peremptory laws, but will recommend them to the citizens by prologues or hortatory discourses	321
General character of these prologues — didactic or rhetorical homilies	322
Great value set by Plato himself upon these prologues. They are to serve as type for all poets. No one is allowed to contradict them	323
Contrast of Leges with Gorgias and Phædrus	324
Regulations for the new colony — About religious worship, the oracles of Delphi and Dodona are to be consulted	325
Perpetuity of number of citizens, and of lots of land, one to each, inalienable and indivisible	326
Plato reasserts his adherence to the principle of the Republic, though the repugnance of others hinders him from realising it	327
Regulations about land, successions, marriages, &c. The number of citizens must not be allowed to increase	328
Position of the city and akropolis — Distribution of the territory and citizens into twelve equal sections or tribes	329
Movable property — Inequality therein reluctantly allowed, as far as four to one, but no farther	330
Census of the citizens — four classes, with graduated scale of property. No citizen to possess gold or silver. No loans or interest. No debts enforced by law	331
Board of thirty-seven Nomophylakes — general supervisors of the laws and their execution — how elected	332
Military commanders — General council of 360 — complicated mode of election	ib.
Character of the electoral scheme — Plato’s views about wealth — he caters partly for the oligarchical sentiment, partly for the democratical	333
Meetings of council — other magistrates — Agoranomi — Astynomi, &c.	335
Defence of the territory — rural police — Agronomi, &c.	ib.
Comparison with the Lacedæmonian Kryptia	336
Priests — Exêgêtæ — Property belonging to temples	337
Superintendence of Music and Gymnastic. Educational function	ib.
Grave duties of the Minister of Education — precautions in electing him	338
Judicial duties	339
Private Causes — how tried	ib.
Public Causes must be tried directly by the citizens — strong feeling among Greeks about this	340
Plato’s way of meeting this feeling — intermediate inquiry and report by a special Commissioner	340
What laws the magistrates are to enforce — Many details must be left to the Nomophylakes	341
Marriage-Laws — Rich husbands to choose poor wives — No dowries — costly marriage festivals are forbidden	342
Laws about slavery. Slaves to be well fed, and never treated with cruelty or insolence. The master must not converse with them	ib.
Circular form for the city — Temples in the centre — No walls round it	344
Mode of life prescribed to new-married couples They are to take the best care about good procreation for the city	ib.
Board of superintending matrons	345
Age fixed for marriage. During the first ten years the couple are under obligation to procreate for the city — Restrictions during these ten years	ib.
How infants are to be brought up — Nurses — Perpetual regulated movements useful for toning down violent emotions	346
Choric and orchestic movements, their effect in discharging strong emotions	347
Training of boys and girls	348
Musical and literary teaching for youth — Poetry, songs, music, dances, must all be fixed by authority, and never changed — Mischief done by poets aiming to please	349
Boys and girls to learn letters and the lyre, from ten to thirteen years of age. Masters will teach the laws and homilies of the lawgiver, and licensed extracts from the poets	350
The teaching is to be simple, and common to both sexes	351
Rudiments of arithmetic and geometry to be taught	352
Astronomy must be taught, in order that the citizens may not assert libellous falsehoods respecting the heavenly bodies	354
Hunting — how far permitted or advised	355
Large general sense which Plato gives to the word hunting	356
Number of religious sacrifices to be determined by lawgiver	357
Military muster of the whole citizen population once in each month — men, women, and children	358
Gymnastic training must have reference to war, not to athletic prizes	358
Regulation of sexual intercourse. Syssitia or public mess	359
Regulations about landed property — Boundaries — Limited power of fining by magistrates	360
Regulations about artisans — Distribution of the annual landed produce	361
Admission of resident Metics — conditions attached	362
Offences and penal judicature — Procedure of the Dikasts	ib.
Sacrilege, the gravest of all crimes. High Treason	363
Theft punished by pœna dupli. General exhortation founded by Plato upon this enactment	364
All unjust men are unjust involuntarily. — No such thing as voluntary injustice. Injustice depends upon the temper of the agent — Distinction between damage and injury	365
Damage may be voluntary or involuntary — Injustice is shown often by conferring corrupt profit upon another — Purpose of punishment, to heal the distemper of the criminal	ib.
Three distinct causes of misguided proceedings. 1. Painful stimulus. 2. Pleasurable stimulus. 3. Ignorance	366
The unjust man is under the influence either of the first or second of these causes, without controul of Reason. If he acts under controul of Reason, though the Reason be bad, he is not unjust	367
Reasoning of Plato to save his doctrine — That no man commits injustice voluntarily	ib.
Peculiar definition of injustice. A man may do great voluntary hurt to others, and yet not be unjust, provided he does it under the influence of Reason, and not of Appetite	368
Plato’s purpose in the Laws is to prevent or remedy not only injustice but misconduct	369
Varieties of homicide — modes of dealing with them penally	370
Homicide involuntary — Homicide under provocation	ib.
Homicide voluntary	371
Homicide between kinsmen	372
Homicide justifiable — in what cases	ib.
Infliction of wounds	ib.
Infliction of blows	373
Plato has borrowed much from Attic procedure, especially in regard to Homicide — Peculiar view of Homicide at Athens, as to procedure	374
Impiety or outrage offered to divine things or places	375
All impiety arises from one or other of three heresies. 1. No belief in the Gods. 2. Belief that the Gods interfere very little. 3. Belief that they may be appeased by prayer and sacrifice	376
Punishment for these three heretical beliefs, with or without overt act	ib.
Heretic, whose conduct has been virtuous and faultless, to be imprisoned for five years, perhaps more	ib.
Heretic with bad conduct — punishment to be inflicted	377
No private worship or religious rites allowed. Every citizen must worship at the public temples	ib.
Uncertain and mischievous action of the religious sentiment upon individuals, if not controuled by public authority	378
Intolerant spirit of Plato’s legislation respecting uniformity of belief	379
The persons denounced by Plato as heretics, and punished as such, would have included a majority of the Grecian world	381
Proëm or prefatory discourse of Plato, for these severe laws against heretics	383
The third variety of heresy is declared to be the worst — the belief in Gods persuadable by prayer and sacrifice	384
Heretics censured by Plato — Sokrates censured before the Athenian Dikasts	385
Kosmological and Kosmogonical theory announced in Leges	386
Soul — older, more powerful in the universe than Body. Different souls are at work in the universe — the good soul and the bad soul	ib.
Plato’s argument is unsatisfactory and inconsistent	388
Reverence of Plato for uniform circular rotation	389
Argument of Plato to confute the second class of heretics	ib.
Contrary doctrine of Plato in Republic	390
Argument of Plato to refute the third class of heretics	391
General belief in Greece about the efficacy of prayer and sacrifice to appease the Gods	392
Incongruities of Plato’s own doctrine	393
Both Herodotus and Sokrates dissented from Plato’s doctrine	394
Great opposition which Plato’s doctrine would have encountered in Greece	395
Local infallibility was claimed as a rule in each community, though rarely enforced with severity: Plato both claims it more emphatically, and enforces it more rigorously	396
Farther civil and political regulations for the Magnetic community. No evidence that Plato had studied the working of different institutions in practice	397
Modes of acquiring property — legitimate and illegitimate	ib.
Plato’s general regulations leave little room for disputes about ownership	398
Plato’s principles of legislation, not consistent — comparison of them with the Attic law about Eranoi	399
Regulations about slaves, and about freedmen	400
Provisions in case a slave is sold, having a distemper upon him	401
Retailers. Strict regulations about them. No citizen can be a retailer	ib.
Frauds committed by sellers — severe punishments on them	402
Comparison with the lighter punishment inflicted by Attic law	403
Regulations about Orphans and Guardians: also about Testamentary powers	404
Plato’s general coincidence with Attic law and its sentiment	406
Tutelage of Orphans — Disagreement of Married Couples — Divorce	ib.
Neglect of Parents	407
Poison — Magic — Incantations — Severe punishment	ib.
Punishment is inflicted with a view to future prevention or amendment	408
Penalty for abusive words — for libellous comedy. Mendicity forbidden	409
Regulations about witnesses on judicial trials	ib.
Censure of forensic eloquence, and the teachers of it. Penalties against contentious litigation	410
Many of Plato’s laws are discharges of ethical antipathy. The antipathy of Melêtus against Sokrates was of the same character	411
Penalty for abuse of public trust — wrongful appropriation of public money — evasion of military service	412
Oaths. Dikasts, Judges, Electors, are to be sworn: but no parties to a suit, or interested witnesses, can be sworn	413
Regulations about admission of strangers, and foreign travel of citizens	414
Suretyship — Length of prescription for ownership, &c.	415
Judicial trial — three stages. 1. Arbitrators. 2. Tribe-Dikasteries. 3. Select Dikastery	ib.
Funerals — proceedings prescribed — expense limited	ib.
Conservative organ to keep up the original scheme of the lawgiver. Nocturnal Council for this purpose — how constituted	ib.
This Council must keep steadily in view the one great end of the city — Mistakes made by existing cities about the right end	417
The one end of the city is the virtue of its citizens — that property which is common to the four varieties of Virtue — Reason, Courage, Temperance, Justice	ib.
The Nocturnal Council must comprehend this unity of Virtue, explain it to others, and watch that it be carried out in detail	418
They must also adopt, explain, and enforce upon the citizens, an orthodox religious creed. Fundamental dogmas of such creed	419
Leges close, without describing the education proper for the Nocturnal Counsellors. Epinomis supplying this defect	420
The Athenian declares his plan of education — Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy	ib.
Theological view of Astronomy — Divine Kosmos — Soul more ancient and more sovereign than Body	421
Improving effects of the study of Astronomy in this spirit	422
Study of arithmetic and geometry: varieties of proportion	423
When the general forms of things have thus been learnt, particular individuals in nature must be brought under them	ib.
Question as to education of the Nocturnal Council is answered in the Epinomis	424
Problem which the Nocturnal Council are required to solve, What is the common property of Prudence, Courage, Temperance, Justice, by reason of which each is called Virtue?	425
The only common property is that all of them are essential to the maintenance of society, and tend to promote human security and happiness	ib.
Tendency of the four opposite qualities to lessen human happiness	426
A certain measure of all the four virtues is required. In judging of particular acts instigated by each, there is always a tacit reference to the hurt or benefit in the special case	ib.
Plato places these four virtues in the highest scale of Expetenda or Bona, on the ground that all the other Bona are sure to flow from them	428
In thus directing the attention of the Council to the common property of the four virtues, Plato enforces upon them the necessity of looking to the security and happiness of their community as the paramount end	429
But he enjoins also other objectionable ends	ib.
Intolerance of Plato — Comparison of the Platonic community with Athens	ib.