Practical Exercises in English

Observation, observance.
40. The —— of a few simple rules of health would have prolonged his life.
41. The North American Indian has great powers of ——.
42. He insisted on the prompt —— of the regulations.
43. The Pharisees were strict in their —— of religious festivals.
44. He is arranging for a careful —— of the eclipse.

Proposal, proposition.
45. I submit two ——s for consideration by the assembly.
46. The —— that each of us relinquish something was accepted.
47. Sealed ——s for building the cottage were handed in by three contractors.
48. He made a —— of marriage to her.
49. I dissent from that ——.
50. A nation dedicated to the —— that all men are created equal.

Solicitude, solicitation.
51. He made frequent —— for money and clothes.
52. My mother watched over my infancy with tender ——.
53. Coriolanus yielded at the —— of his mother.

Stimulus, stimulant, stimulation.
54. He worked hard under the —— of a desire to get rich.
55. The providential —— of conscience is always present.
56. The doctor came and administered a gentle —— to the patient.

III. ADDITIONAL NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED.[31]

Ability, capacity.—Ability is the power of doing; capacity, the power of containing, of understanding, of acquiring.

Adherence, adhesion.—Adherence is used of moral relations, adhesion, of physical connection. We speak of the adhesion of glue to wood, of a man's adherence to the principles of his party.

Amount, quantity, number.—Amount means "sum total," and is used of numbers or quantities; quantity is used of things which are measured; number, of things which are counted.

Argument, plea.—"Plea (in the legal sense) is properly used of the pleadings or the arraignment before a trial, not of the argument at a trial. A plea is always addressed to the court; an argument may be addressed either to the court or to the jury. A similar remark applies to the verbs plead and argue."[32]

Balance, rest, remainder.—Balance, meaning "the difference between two sides of an account," is a commercial term, and cannot properly be used for rest or remainder. Rest is used of persons or things, and of large as well as of small parts. Remainder is used only of things, and denotes a comparatively small part.

Centre, middle.—The centre is a point, or a definite place; the middle is a line, or a space, and is less definite than centre.

Character, reputation.—Character is what a man is; reputation is the prevailing opinion of his character.

Complement, compliment.—A complement is a "full quantity or number" or "that which is needed to complete"; a compliment is "an expression of praise."

Conscience, consciousness.—Conscience is that within us which distinguishes right from wrong. Consciousness is the state of being aware of one's existence, thoughts, and surroundings.

Council, counsel.—A council is "a body of persons convened for consultation." Counsel denotes "advice," or "a person, as a lawyer, engaged to give advice."

Custom, habit.—Custom denotes the frequent repetition of the same act, and may be used of a number of persons taken together. Habit is the effect of custom in a person. Custom is voluntary; habit is involuntary, often uncontrollable, sometimes unconscious.

Deception, deceit.—Deception is "the act of deceiving"; deceit is "deceitfulness," a trait of character; or a "trick," an "artifice."

Egoists, egoism, egotism.—"The disciples of Descartes were egoists, the ego being the basis of their philosophy." Egoism is the name of their system. Egoism is sometimes used also in the sense of undue admiration of self, the outward expression of which is egotism. But "egotism, in the sense of 'self-worship,' is preferable to egoism, since egoism also designates a system of philosophy."[33]

Emigration, immigration.—Emigration is the moving out from a country; immigration, the moving into it. Foreigners who come to live in America are emigrants from their fatherland, immigrants to America.

Enormity, enormousness.—"Enormity is used of deeds of unusual horror; enormousness, of things of unusual size. We speak of the enormity of Cæsar Borgia's crimes, of the enormousness of the Rothschilds' wealth."[34]

Esteem, estimate, estimation.—Esteem as a noun seems to be going out of use; the word now commonly used in the sense of "opinion" or "regard" is estimation. An estimate is "an approximate judgment, based on considerations of probability, of the number, amount, magnitude, or position of anything."

Falsity, falseness.—"Falsity, in the sense of 'non-conformity to truth,' without any suggestion of blame, is preferable to falseness, since falseness usually implies blame."[35]

Identity, identification.—Identity is "the state of being the same." Identification denotes "the act of determining what a given thing, or who a given person, is."

Import, importance.—Import, in the sense of "meaning," must be distinguished from importance, "the quality of being important."

Invention, discovery.—We invent something new, contrived or produced for the first time. We discover what existed before, but remained unknown.

Limit, limitation.—Limit, in the sense of "bound," is preferable to limitation, since limitation also means "the act of limiting," or a "restriction."

Lot, number.—Lot denotes "a distinct part or parcel": as, "The auctioneer sold the goods in ten lots." The word does not mean "a great number"; therefore it is improperly used in the sentences: "He has lots of money," and "I know a lot of people in New York."

Majority, plurality.—A majority is more than half the whole number; a plurality is the excess of votes given for one candidate over those given for another, and is not necessarily a majority when there are more than two candidates.

Negligence, neglect.—"Negligence is used of a habit or trait; neglect, of an act or succession of acts."[36]

Novice, novitiate.—Novice properly means one who is new in any business or calling; novitiate, the state or time of being a novice.

Organism, organization.—An organism is a "living body composed of a number of essential parts." Organization denotes "the act of organizing," or "an organized body of persons," as a literary society.

Part, portion.—"Part is the general word for that which is less than the whole: as, the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts.... Portion is often used in a stilted way where part would be simpler and better; portion has always some suggestion of allotment or assignment: as, this is my portion; a portion of Scripture. 'Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me.'"[37]

Plenty, abundance.—Plenty is enough; abundance, more than enough.

Produce, product, production.—Produce is always collective, and is used only of raw products: as, the produce of the soil, of the flock. Product denotes the result of some operation, usually physical labor. Production, meaning "the act of producing," is also applied to a work of literature or art, as a book, a statue, or a painting. "Product, in the sense of 'thing produced,' is preferable to production, since production is also used in an abstract sense."[38]

Prominence, predominance.—Prominence means "a standing out from something, so as to be conspicuous." Predominance denotes "ascendency," "a superiority in strength or influence," "an over-ruling." There may be many prominent traits in a person's character; there can be only one predominant trait.

Receipt, recipe.—"Receipt, in the sense of 'formula for a pudding, etc.,' is preferable to recipe, since recipe is commonly restricted to medical prescriptions."[38]

Relative, relation.—"Relative, in the sense of 'member of a family,' is preferable to relation, since relation is also used in an abstract sense."[38]

Requirement, requisite, requisition.—A requirement is something required by a person or persons. A requisite is something required by the nature of the case. A requisition is an authoritative demand or official request for a supply of something.

Resort, recourse, resource.—Resort denotes "the act of going to some person or thing"; or "that which is resorted to or habitually visited." Recourse means "resort for help or protection." Resource denotes "something which is a source of help or support."

Secreting, secretion.—Secreting is the act of hiding; secretion, a physiological process or fluid.

Sewage, sewerage.—Sewage means the contents, sewerage, the system, of sewers.

Situation, site.—"Situation embraces all the local aspects and relationships[39] in which a thing is placed. The site is confined to the ground on which it is erected or reposes."[40]

Speciality, specialty.—"Speciality, in the sense of 'distinctive quality,' is preferable to specialty, since specialty is also used in the sense of 'distinctive thing.'"[41]

Union, unity.—Union is "the joining of two or more things into one." Unity means "oneness," "harmony."

Visitant, visitor.—Visitant was formerly used to denote a supernatural being; visitor, a human one. Visitant seems now to be going out of use, visitor being used in both senses.

[31] "Foundations," p. 56. If it seem undesirable to drill pupils on all the words which are here discriminated, the teacher may select those words which they are most likely to misuse. See note 2, p. 22.

[32] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 40.
[33] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
[34] Ibid., p. 38.
[35] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
[36] Ibid., p. 39.
[37] The Century Dictionary.
[38] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
[39] Is "relationships" the proper word here?
[40] Smith's Synonyms Discriminated.
[41] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.

EXERCISE XXII.

Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. He is a person of great ability (capacity).
2. A good character (reputation) is a precious possession.
3. The man seemed to be without conscience (consciousness).
4. The counsel (council) was not wise.
5. It is John's custom (habit) to speak slowly.
6. Her deceit (deception) amazed me.
7. This man is an egoist (egotist).
8. The government does not encourage immigration (emigration).
9. In Mr. E.'s estimate (estimation) the cost of lumber and paint is low.
10. It was only yesterday that I heard of the identification (identity) of the men who robbed Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith.
11. Mr. Gladstone's remark at the banquet was an utterance of great import (importance).
12. This is a remarkable discovery (invention).
13. Calhoun was nominated by a majority (plurality).
14. His death was caused by his own neglect (negligence).
15. The privileges of a novice (novitiate) are not many.
16. What a queer organism (organization)!
17. The expedition has plenty (an abundance) of provisions.
18. He proposes to lay a tax on all English produce (products, productions).
19. He quickly attained prominence (predominance) in the committee.
20. Please copy this receipt (recipe).
21. My relatives (relations) here are charming.
22. Wanted, a boy to do light work in a first-class store. Ability to read and write is a requirement (requisite).
23. The sewage (sewerage) of inland cities presents problems of great difficulty.
24. The site (situation) of the temple is not known.
25. Unity (union) of religious denominations is hoped for by many.

EXERCISE XXIII.

Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—

Ability, capacity.
1. The —— of the room is not great.
2. They gave, each according to his ——.
3. What is —— but the power of doing a thing?
4. Let me drink of Thee according to my ——. (From a prayer.)
5. Some students do not have —— to master Greek; but what most need is —— to work persistently.
6. My father does not think Judge X. has much—as a lawyer.

Adherence, adhesion.
7. The —— of the parts which were cemented together is still perfect.
8. He showed an obstinate —— to false rules of conduct.
9. Marks on the blackboard depend on the —— of chalk to the slate.
10. Professor A.'s —— to the doctrines of Adam Smith is seen in his last book.

Amount, number, quantity.
11. Our monthly expenditures vary in ——.
12. You could see any —— of cabs standing in front of the theatre.
13. A great —— of books and papers covered the table.
14. Gulliver asked the king of Lilliput for a large —— of iron bars and a considerable —— of rope.
15. What —— of paper is needed for one issue of Harper's Weekly?
16. Such a (an) —— of sheep as we saw to-day!
17. There is a large —— of silver bullion in the Treasury waiting to be coined.

Argument, plea.
18. Every whisper in the court-room was hushed as Mr. N. rose before the jury and began his—in behalf of the prisoner.
19. The —— of Smith, when arraigned before the court, was that he had acted in self-defence.

20. The only —— available with an east wind is to put on your overcoat.

Balance, remainder, rest.
21. The —— of the hour is spent in the study of some poem.
22. I have a —— at my banker's.
23. The —— of the boys went home.
24. For the —— of the week we stayed at home.
25. The account shows a —— of $12.46.
26. Give John and Horace four of the six apples; you may have the ——.
27. Give the —— of our dinner to Tommy, our cat.

Centre, middle.
28. There is a crack running down the —— of the wall.
29. A table stood in the —— of the room.
30. A path runs through the —— of the park.
31. In the —— of the garden was a fountain.
32. He parts his hair in the ——.
33. The arrow struck the —— of the target.

Character, reputation.
34. This man has an excellent —— for honesty.
35. Every one admires the —— of Washington.
36. Mr. Arnold won great —— as a critic.
37. Oh, I have lost my ——.
38. The outlaws of Yorkshire were men of loose ——.
39. A distinguished general may lose his —— through a single blunder.
40. —— is an idle and most false imposition; oft got without merit,
and lost without deserving.

Complement, compliment.
41. Present my ——s to your father.
42. The ship has its —— of stores.
43. The —— of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle.
44. "True friendship loathes such oily ——."
45. In the sentence, "He is ill," "ill" is the —— of the verb "is."
46. "This barren verbiage, current among men, Light coin, the tinsel clink of ——."

Conscience, consciousness.
47. The —— of the purity of his motives consoled him for his unpopularity.
48. My —— hath a thousand several tongues.
49. I felt a shock, I saw the car topple over, and then I lost ——.

Council, counsel.
50. "No man will take ——, but every man will take money; therefore money is better than ——."—Swift.
51. The members of the cabinet form a sort of secret —— of the President.
52. Webster was one of the —— in the trial of the Knapps for the murder of Captain White.

Custom, habit.
53. De Quincey acquired the —— of using opium from first using it to relieve neuralgic pains.
54. Dancing round a May-pole is a —— many hundreds of years old.
55. As his —— was, he went to the synagogue on the Sabbath.
56. Man is a bundle of ——s.
57. Those national ——s are best which lead to good ——s among the people.
58. A loose life brings a man into ——s of dissipation.
59. It was the —— of Scotch Highlanders to go bareheaded.
60. It is a good —— to rise early, because this will soon become a ——.

Deception, deceit.
61. He was guilty of a long course of ——.
62. Her character would be charming if it were not for her ——.
63. He won my confidence by base ——.
64. Deceivers seldom profit by their ——.
65. —— Is of the very nature and essence of sin.

Egotist, egoist.
66. He is an ——, for he is always talking about himself.
67. ——s are the pest of society; they are always obtruding their ailments on others.

Emigration, immigration.
68. The increase in Chinese —— is a matter for serious consideration by the United States Senate.
69. The Chinese government encourages —— to America.
70. —— is one cause of the rapid growth of our population.
71. The —— of the French nobility at the time of the French Revolution was a political blunder.

Enormity, enormousness.
72. The —— of the cost of the civil war startles the student of history.
73. Burke drew such a vivid picture of the —— of the Nabob of Arcot's crimes that ladies in the audience fainted.
74. Visitors do not at first realize the —— of St. Peter's, at Rome.

Esteem, estimate, estimation.
75. In what —— is he held by his townsmen?
76. In my —— she is the best of women.
77. We can form an —— of the amount of water in the air.

Falseness, falsity.
78. We have already seen the —— of that hypothesis.
79. Arnold was despised for his ——.
80. Piety is opposed to hypocrisy and ——.
81. The prince is in danger of betrayal through the —— of his servant.
82. The —— of this reasoning is evident.

Identity, identification.
83. The bodies were so disfigured that their —— was difficult.
84. In no form of government is there absolute —— of interest between the people and their rulers.

Import, importance.
85. He heard the tolling of the bell and trembled at its ——.
86. The oath of the President contains three words, all of equal ——; namely, that he will "preserve, protect, and defend" the Constitution.
87. He was engaged in business of the highest ——.
88. You misunderstood the —— of my remarks.

Invention, discovery.
89. Newton's —— of the law of gravitation.
90. The —— of the telescope was made by Galileo.
91. The —— of the properties of the magnetic needle is said to have been made by the Chinese; also, the —— of gunpowder.
92. The —— of the circulation of blood was made by Harvey.
93. The steam-engine is one of the greatest ——s of this age.
94. The —— of the telephone is claimed by several persons.

Limit, limitation.
95. All kinds of knowledge have their ——s.
96. Titus Quintius was appointed to the command of the army without any ——s.
97. Athens insisted upon —— of the right to vote.
98. The prisoners were free to roam within certain ——s, but their employments were subject to ——.

Majority, plurality.
99. If A has 21 votes, B 18, and C 10, A is elected by a ——, not a ——.
100. Smith had 37 of the 52 votes, a good ——.
101. Jones had 20 votes, Smith 14, and Brown 11; Jones therefore was elected by a safe ——.

Negligence, neglect.
102. "Without blame
Or our —— we lost her as we came."—Comus.
103. Through —— to do what ought to be done we soon acquire habits of ——.
104. Rescue my poor remains from vile ——.
105. The gate has fallen from its hinges, the wooden steps are rotted, and the house shows similar signs of ——.
106. —— is a grave fault.

Novice, novitiate.
107. For most men a —— of silence is profitable before they enter on the business of life.
108. I am young, a —— in the trade.
109. It was in this abbey that I served my ——.
110. When I was a —— in this place, there was here a pious monk.

Organism, organization.
111. Germs of microscopic ——s exist abundantly on the surface of all fruits.
112. Lieutenant Peary has completed the —— of his arctic expedition.
113. The Jacobin club was a political ——.
114. What a complex —— the human body is!

Part, portion.
115. A —— of my work is done.
116. The younger —— of the community.
117. The priests had a —— of land assigned them by Pharaoh.
118. The whole is equal to the sum of all its ——s.
119. Each received his —— of the estate.
120. The lower ——s of his body were cold.
121. "This," said he, "is a —— of the true cross."

Plenty, abundance.
122. If you do not waste your money, you will have —— for your expenses.
123. They did cast in of their ——; but she of her want.
124. The expedition has —— of provisions, but none to spare.
125. Last year there was —— of corn; it was estimated that we had enough to feed the whole nation for two years.

Produce, product, production.
126. The manufacturers brought their ——s to market.
127. The farmers bring their —— to town or haul it to the nearest railway station.
128. The apple is especially an American ——.
129. Lowell's "Commemoration Ode" is a noble ——.
130. Great Britain exports chiefly manufactured ——.
131. The component elements of —— are labor and capital.

Prominence, predominance.
132. The Indian race is marked by a —— of the cheek-bones.
133. The English settlers were prominent (predominant) in the New World.
134. "Childe Harold" brought Byron into —— as a poet.
135. As a man Byron had many prominent (predominant) faults; it is not easy to say which one was prominent (predominant).

Recipe, receipt.
136. Please send me your —— for making chocolate ice-cream.
137. Paracelsus furnished a —— for making a fairy, but had the delicacy to refrain from using it.
138. He gave me a —— for a liniment, which he said was excellent for sprains.

Relative, relation.
139. He has no —— in this part of the country.
140. I am the nearest —— he has in the world.

Requirement, requisition, requisite.
141. One of the ——s in a great commander is coolness.
142. The ——s for admission to college vary.
143. One of the ——s in a United States minister to France is that he be wealthy, for the salary paid is insufficient to defray the expenses of the minister's social obligations.
144. That locomotive engineers be not color-blind is a just ——.
145. The wars of Napoleon were marked by the enormous ——s which were made on invaded countries.

Resort, Resource, Recourse.
146. The woods were her favorite—.
147. The United States has unlimited—s.
148. Asheville has long been a—of wealthy society people.
149. When women engage in any art or trade, it is usually as a last ——.
150. General Lee had—to stratagem.

Secretion, secreting.
151. Jailers are watchful to prevent the —— of poison in letters sent to condemned prisoners.
153. Saliva is a ——.

Sewage, sewerage.
153. The water of rivers that have received —— is not good to drink.
154. The vast and intricate —— of Paris is described by Victor Hugo in "Les Miserables."

Situation, site.
155. The —— of Samaria is far more beautiful than the —— of Jerusalem, though not so grand and wild.
156. Dr. Schliemann made excavations to discover the —— of Troy.
157. Our school buildings have a fine ——.
158. Has the —— of Professor Richard's house been fixed?
159. One of Nebuchadnezzar's temples is thought to have stood on the —— of the Tower of Babel.

Specialty, speciality.
160. It is the —— of vice that it is selfishly indifferent to the injurious consequences of actions.
161. Diseases of the throat are Dr. Hall's ——.
162. Fountain-pens a ——.
163. "Toughness" is the —— of Salisbury iron; therefore Salisbury iron is much in demand for car-wheels.

Union, unity.
164. How good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in ——.
165. The —— of soul and body is ended by death.
166. In the temper of Lord Bacon there was a singular —— of audacity and sobriety.
167. This composition lacks ——; the writer treats of several distinct subjects.

EXERCISE XXIV.

Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused,
and substitute for them better expressions:—

1. The West End Railway Company is the factor[42] which can remedy all this.
2. Addison's "Cato" was a success.
3. Decoration Day is a fitting observance of those who gave their lives for their country.
4. At the end of each day the teams[43] are so broken up that they have to go into the repair-shop, where the carpenter and blacksmith are able to fix any part of them.
5. The majority of the news is unfavorable.
6. Search-lights would be an indispensable factor in a night attack.
7. Bishop Hatto lived in a country where all the productions were spoiled by the weather.
8. The whole of the stupid boys in Germany struggle to pass this test.
9. The police are looking for the guilty parties.
10. A lot of men from the country came to town to see the circus.
11. In the shed is a mixture[44] of oars, seats, sails, rudders, booms, and gaffs.
12. They had to take the balance of his arm off.
13. Addison's essays were a great factor in improving the morals of his age.
14. General Manager Payson Tucker at once sent detectives to the scene, and every effort will be made to secure the guilty parties.
15. For a few days Coxey's army was a success as a show.
16. If it were not for him and a few others of his ilk the matter would have been settled long ago.

[42] "Foundations," p. 51.
[43] Ibid., p. 52.
[44] Consult a good dictionary.

EXERCISE XXV.[45]

Illustrate by original sentences the correct use of these words:—

Home, party, series, statement, verdict, acceptation, actions, advance, advancement, avocation, completion, allusion, illusion, observation, observance, proposal, proposition, solicitude, solicitation, stimulus, stimulant, capacity, adherence, adhesion, amount, quantity, number, centre, middle, character, complement, compliment, conscience, consciousness, council, counsel, custom, habit, deception, deceit, egoist, emigration, immigration, enormity, enormousness, esteem, estimate, falsity, falseness, import, invention, discovery, limitation, majority, plurality, negligence, neglect, novitiate, organization, organism, produce, product, production, prominence, predominance, recipe, requirement, requisition, requisite, resort, resource, secretion, sewage, sewerage, situation, site, speciality, specialty, union, unity.

[45] TO THE TEACHER.—It is easy to underestimate the difficulty which this exercise presents to pupils. In assigning the lesson care must be taken not to call for more of this kind of work than can be done well. Constructing a sentence to illustrate the correct use of a word is a valuable exercise, but it is a difficult one; and persons who know the correct use of a word may be put to their wit's end to illustrate that use. It will be well to assign this exercise little by little, while the class works through the definitions and exercises on pages 23-41; or else to select from the list the words on which the class needs most drill. With some pupils it may be wise to omit the exercise entirely.

CHAPTER IV

OF PRONOUNS

Possessive forms.[46]—No apostrophe is used in forming the possessive
case of personal pronouns. We write "ours," "yours," "hers," "its,"
"theirs." "It's" is a contraction for "it is."

[46] "Foundations," p. 60.

EXERCISE XXVI.

Write from dictation—
1. John's hat is old, yours is new.
2. The bear was lying on its side, dead.
3. The Browns' house is larger than ours, but ours is more convenient thantheirs.
4. Yours very respectfully, John Smith.
5. See the yacht! it's coining into the harbor under full sail.
6. Show Mary your doll; it should not grieve you that yours is not sopretty as hers.
7. That fault was not yours.
8. Helen's eyes followed the direction of hers.

Nominative or Objective Case.[47]—There are only seven words in the English language that now have different forms for the nominative and objective cases; therefore it is only in the use of these words that we need to observe any rules about "nominative" or "objective." Since, however, these seven words are more frequently used than any other words, the possibilities of error in choosing between the nominative and the objective are many. Mistakes of this kind are common, and produce a very unpleasant effect on cultivated people. The seven words that have different forms for the nominative and objective cases are the following pronouns[48]:—

It is taken for granted that the student has already learned the following
principles of syntax:—
1. Words used absolutely and the subjects of finite verbs should in English be put in the NOMINATIVE form.
2. The subjects of infinitives and the objects of verbs and prepositions should be in the OBJECTIVE form.
3. Words in apposition should be in the same case.
4. The verb "to be," or any of its forms (am, is, are, were, etc.), does not take an object, but, being equivalent in meaning to the symbol "=," takes the same case after it as before it: the nominative, if the form is "finite"; the objective, if the form is "infinitive" and has a subject of its own. "I know it is he," "I know it to be him," and "The stranger is thought to be he" are grammatically correct.

Sentences like "She invited Mrs. R. and I to go driving" are common, even among people generally well-informed. Such mistakes will be avoided if the speaker stops to think what the form would be if the pronoun were not coupled with a noun. No one would think of saying, "She invited I to go driving."

Persons who are in doubt as to which form of the pronoun to use often try to avoid the difficulty by using one of the pronouns ending in "-self"—pronouns which have the same form for both the nominative and the objective case. Thus many persons, uncertain whether to use "I" or "me" in the sentence quoted above, would say instead, "She invited Mrs. R. and myself to go driving." This is no better than "Mrs. R. and I," or "her and I." The pronouns in "-self" are properly used only for emphasis or in a reflexive sense.[49] It is right to say: "I will go myself"; "Carrie herself went to the door "; "God helps those who help themselves." It would be wrong to say, "Harry and myself have bought a horse together."

When a pronoun in "-self" is used reflexively, it refers to the subject of the clause in which it stands.

In sentences like "This advice is free to whoever will take it," the word ending in "-ever" is the subject of the verb "will take," not the object of the preposition "to." The right form, therefore, is "whoever," not "whomever." The object or, better, the "base" of the preposition "to" is the whole clause, "whoever will take it."

[47] Ibid., pp. 61-62.
[48] I omit ye, you, because they are used interchangeably. I omit also
compounds of who, whom.
[49] "Foundations," p. 64.

EXERCISE XXVII.

Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—

I

I, me, myself.
1. Taking a carriage, my brother and —— drove to the east end of Cape Elizabeth.
2. Mr. C. and —— walked around the lake by moonlight.
3. The walk gave pleasure to both Mr. C. and ——.
4. Between you and ——, affairs look dark.
5. The Star contains a paper on "Our Streets," which was written by ——. >
6. He is taller than ——.[50]
7. There is, you remember, an old agreement between you and ——
8. May John and —— go to the ball-game?
9. Please let John and —— go to the ball-game.
10. They met Robert and —— in the village.
11. Who is there? Only ——.
a whole year, too, ——, who had never been away from home, was not easy for mother.
13. Will you let Brown and —— have your boat?
14. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls, —— among the rest.
15. Next month my brother and —— are going to Bar Harbor.
16. It was —— who called to you.
17. I was beside ——.
18. Would you go, if you were ——?
19. Father bought brother and —— tickets for the concert.
20. He said he would bring some flowers to Frances and ——.
21. You suffer from headache more than ——.
22. We shall soon see which is the better boxer, you or ——.
23. Who rang the bell? ——
24. The taller man was supposed to be ——.
25. Every one has gone except you and ——.
26. The world will rest content with such poor things as you and ——.
27. He was a sublimer poet than ——.
28. Was it —— that you saw?
29. How can you thus address me, ——, who am your friend?
30. Let you and —— go for berries alone, if he will not go with us.
31. There is no one here but you and ——.
32. Is it —— you wish to see?
33. He said that you and —— might ao.
34. Oh, no; it couldn't have been ——.
35. Harry left word for you and —— to come to his room.
36. Other girls have books as well as ——.
37. Its being —— should make no difference.
38. Young Macdonald and —— went to New York last Thursday.
39. She knew it to be —— by my gait.

[50] In sentences like this the correct form will become evident if the speaker mentally completes the sentence thus: He is taller than —— am. The greater part of the clause after "than" or "as" is generally omitted.

II.

We, us, ourselves.
1. Our friends and —— are going out to-night.
2. He has come to take our friends and —— driving.
3. They are wiser than ——, since they are older.
4. They will lose more than —— by the failure of the bank.
5. The Germans are better plodders than ——.
6. It may have been —— who (whom) you saw.
7. —— boys are having a fine time.
8. Have you seen the picture of —— three girls in a boat, taken by Mr. B.?
9. There are five hundred miles between father and ——.
10. They know that as well as ——.
11. They don't succeed any better than ——.
12. They as well as —— were disappointed.
13. —— ought not to get angry when others criticise —— for faults which —— freely acknowledge.
14. "It is not fit for such as ——
To sit with rulers of the land."

III.

Thou, thee, thyself.
1. I will not learn my duty from such as ——.
2. If they rob only such as ——, I hold them right honest folk.
3. Love —— last.
4. "The nations not so blest as ——
Must in their turn to tyrants fall."
5. "Wife, dost —— know that all the world seems queer except —— and me; and sometimes I think even —— art a little queer?"
6. "Hail to ——, blithe spirit;
Bird —— never wert."

IV.

He, him, himself.
1. There is a difference between an employer and —— who (whom) he employs.
2. John —— wrote that letter.
3. You are nearly as tall as ——.
4. All wore dress suits except Charles and ——.
5. I know that it was ——.
6. I knew it to be ——.
7. —— being young, they tried to deceive him.
8. It was either —— or his brother that called.
9. What were you and —— talking about?
10. I can run as fast as ——.
11. —— who had always protected her, she now saw dead at her feet.
12. —— and his father are in business together.
13. She is as good as ——.
14. I should never have imagined it to be ——.
15. Boys like you and —— are expected to do what is right without being told.
16. Yes, I told them what you said, —— among the rest.
17. I did as well as ——.
18. It was Joseph, —— whom Pharaoh made prime-minister.
19. Let —— who made thee answer that.
20. Whom can I trust, if not ——?

V.

She, her, herself.
1. Before leaving Mary we saw —— and her baggage safe on the train.
2. —— and her two cousins have been visiting us.
3. I would not go to town alone, if I were ——.
4. It was not —— but her sister that you met yesterday.
5. You are as old as ——.
6. —— and I are not in the same class.
7. Was it —— that did it?
8. I cannot let you and —— sit together.
9. You play the violin better than ——.
10. Such girls as —— are not good companions.
11. I am certain that it was ——.
12. Girls like —— are not good company.
13. If any one is embarrassed, it will not be ——.
14. If any one is late it will be sure to be ——.

VI.

They, them, themselves.
1. —— and their children have left town.
2. We shall soon be as poor as ——.
3. Yes, it was ——.
4. I do not know whether the Macdonalds are Scotch or Irish but I thought the Scotch family alluded to might be ——.
5. The mischievous boys you speak of could not have been —— for —— were at home.

VII.

Who, whom, whoever, whomever.
1. —— are you going to give that to?
2. —— do men say that I am?
3. —— do men think me to be?
4. —— am I supposed to be?
5. —— do you think will be elected?
6. —— do you think they will select?
7. I do not know —— to compare him to.
8. Tell me in sadness —— is she you love?
9. —— are you going to call on next?
10. How can we tell —— to trust?
11. —— is that for?
12. Elect —— you like.
13. —— did you see at the village?
14. —— did you say went with you?
15. Do you know —— you can get to take my trunk?
16. —— were you talking to just now?
17. I do not know —— you mean.
18. Do you remember —— he married?
19. We will refer the question to —— you may select as arbitrator.
20. —— can this letter be from?
21. He is a man —— I know is honest.[51]
22. He is a man —— I know to be honest.[51]
23. —— do you take me to be?
24. —— did you expect to see?
25. Can't you remember —— you gave it to?
26. I saw a man —— I have no hesitation in saying was Julian H.
27. We like to be with those —— we love and —— we know love us, let them be —— they may.
28. —— do you think it was that called?
29. He confided his plan to those —— he thought were his friends.
30. He confided his plan to those —— he thought he could trust.
31. We recommend only those —— we think can pass the examinations, and —— we know will do their best.
32. —— do you think she looks like?
33. One letter was from an applicant —— I afterwards learned had been out of a position for two years.
34. —— did you suppose it was?
35. Opposite him was a handsome man—John knew must be Kathleen's uncle.
36. A witness —— the counsel for the defence expected would be present was kept away by illness.
37. A witness —— the counsel expected to be present was kept away.
38. Give it to —— seems to need it most.
39. —— does he think it could have been?
40. They have found the child —— they thought was stolen.
41. Mr. Morton, ——, it is announced, the President has appointed minister to France, has a house at Saratoga.
42. Miss C. married an old gentleman —— they say is very wealthy.
43. The king offered to give his daughter in marriage to —— would kill the terrible monster.
44. —— do you think I saw in Paris?
45. —— are you going to vote for?
46. They left me ignorant as to —— it was.
47. We were betrayed by those —— we thought would die for us.
48. I don't know —— to ask for.
49. I know —— it is I serve.
50. The President has appointed Mr. L., —— he thinks will show himself well fitted for the position.
51. One member of the committee was absent ——, it was asserted by the minority, would have voted in the negative.
52. The officer addressed the woman, —— he plainly saw to be very much out of place there.
53. —— did he refer to, he (him) or I (me)?
54. Ariel was a spirit —— a certain witch had shut up in a tree.
55. If she did not take after Anne, —— did she take after?

Pronouns before Verbal Nouns.[52]—Grammarians distinguish three kinds
of words formed from verbs by the adding of "-ing."

1. "We found Katharine singing a merry song." In this sentence "singing"—equivalent to "who was singing"—describes Katharine, and is therefore used as an adjective; but it also partakes of the nature of a verb, for it has a direct object, "song." Such words, partaking of the nature of both adjective and verb, are called PARTICIPLES.
2. "Blithely singing pretty songs keeps one's spirits up."

Here "singing" is a noun, the subject of the sentence; yet it has a direct object, "songs," and is modified by the adverb "blithely." Such words, partaking of the nature of both noun and verb, are called GERUNDS.

A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund to denote the subject of the action should be put in the possessive case. The reason for this becomes evident if, in the sentence "Do you remember Katharine (Katharine's) singing?" we substitute for the noun "singing" another noun, "song;" thus, "Do you remember Katharine (Katharine's) song?" The direct object of "remember" is "singing," which is described by the possessive "Katharine's."

3. "Katharine's blithe singing of merry songs helps to make home happy." Here, too, "singing" is a noun; but now its verbal character has disappeared, for it is modified by an adjective "blithe," and instead of a direct object we have the prepositional phrase "of merry songs." Such words derived from verbs are ABSTRACT VERBAL NOUNS.

When a word in "-ing" is modified by "the" or some other adjective, it is an abstract verbal noun, and cannot have an object. Conversely, if it, is followed by "of" and a noun instead of by a direct object, it should be modified by "the" or some other adjective.

[51] In the first of these sentences the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "is honest," and "I know" is parenthetical. In the second sentence, the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "to be honest," which is the complement of "I know." [52] "Foundations," pp. 62-64.

EXERCISE XXVIII.

Which of the following forms is preferable? Give the reason:—

1. I heard of him (his) coming home.
2. What do you think of Marguerite (Marguerite's) studying Latin?
3. Have you any doubt of Kathleen (Kathleen's) being happy?
4. We saw the lady (lady's) crossing the street.
5. Do you remember my (me) speaking to you about your penmanship?
6. We saw the old miser (miser's) sitting alone in front of his hut.
7. What is the good of your (you) going now?
8. There was no doubt of him (his) being promoted.
9. Trust to me (my) being on time.
10. Are you surprised at it (its) being him (he)?
11. No doubt his example will be followed by others, with the consequence of the country (country's) being overrun by tramps.
12. Look at him (his) reading a book.
13. The delay was caused by us (our) missing the train.
14. I found him (his) reading Idyls of the King.
15. This may lead to Harry (Harry's) getting a position.
16. We did not see the house (house's) burning.
17. You (your) writing the letter so neatly secured for you the position.
18. The man's (man) breaking jail is evidence of his guilt.
19. What do you think about this cloth (cloth's) wearing well?
20. We must insist upon every man (man's) doing his duty.
21. Mr. R.'s (Mr. R.) having come to town will soon be known.
22. There is prospect of the Senate (Senate's) passing the tariff bill.
23. What use is there in a man (man's) swearing?
24. His parents are opposed to him (his) playing football.
25. No one ever saw fat men (men's) heading a riot.
26. A fierce struggle ensued, ending in the intruder (intruder's) being worsted.
27. Professor C. relies on us (our) passing our examinations.
28. I felt my heart (heart's) beating faster.
29. There is no use in me (my) trying to learn Hebrew.
30. I enjoy nothing more than the sight of a yacht (yacht's) sailing in a stiff breeze.
31. Brown (Brown's) being a manufacturer prevented his election.

EXERCISE XXIX.

Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:—

1. The man (man's) asking to be allowed to vote started a quarrel.
2. Did you see him (his) riding?
3. I had to laugh at John (John's) riding a bicycle.
4. Think of me (my) eating frogs' legs.
5. Much depends on the teacher (teacher's) correcting the papers.
6. Did you watch him (his) entering the room?
7. Did you hear Ruth (Ruth's) singing?
8. No one ever heard of that man (man's) running for office.

EXERCISE XXX.

Explain the faults in the following sentences and correct them in several
ways:—

1. He read the parable about the sowing the seed.
2. Good writing depends on reading of good books.
3. Youth is the time for the forming the character.
4. "In building of chaises, I tell you what, There is always somewhere a weakest spot."
5. He would not aid me so much as by the lifting a hand.
6. Groaning of prisoners and clanking of chains were heard.
7. By the obtaining wisdom you will command esteem.
8. By reading of good books his style was improved.
9. The taking things by force is apt to make trouble.
10. A more careful guarding the prisoners would have prevented this accident.

Choice of Relative Pronouns.[53]—Who is now used only of persons; which, of things; that, of either persons or things. As a rule, euphony decides between who or which and that.

"Who is used chiefly of persons (though also often of the higher animals), which almost only of animals and things (in old English also of persons), and that indifferently of either, except after a preposition, where only who [whom] or which can stand. Some recent authorities teach that only that should be used when the relative clause is limiting or defining: as, the man that runs fastest wins the race; but who or which when it is descriptive or co-ordinating: as, this man, who ran fastest, won the race; but, though present usage is perhaps tending in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of English speech, nor is it likely to become one, especially on account of the impossibility of setting that after a preposition; for to turn all relative clauses into the form 'the house that Jack lived in' (instead of 'the house in which Jack lived') would be intolerable. In good punctuation the defining relative is distinguished (as in the examples above) by never taking a comma before it, whether it be who or which or that. Wherever that could be properly used, but only there, the relative may be, and very often is, omitted altogether; thus, the house Jack built or lived in; the man he built it for."[54]

When the antecedent includes both persons and things, that is preferable to who or which.

"When the antecedent is a neuter noun not personified, a writer should prefer of which to whose, unless euphony requires the latter."[55]

What, as a relative pronoun, is equivalent to "that which." It is never used with an antecedent, since the antecedent is included in the meaning of the word.

The word as is a relative pronoun only after "such" or "same." After "such" the proper relative is "as"; after "same" it is "as" or "that." "Same as usually expresses identity of kind, same that absolute identity, except in contracted sentences where same as is alone found:
cf. 'he uses the same books as you do,' 'he uses the same books that you do,' he uses the same books as you.'"[56]

[53] "Foundations," pp. 60, 65, 67-69.
[54] The Century Dictionary.
[55] "Foundations," p. 68.
[56] Murray's Dictionary.

EXERCISE XXXI.

Insert the proper relative pronoun in the blanks in the following sentences, giving the reason for your choice:—

1. Man is the only animal —— can talk.
2. There are many persons ——, though they be starving, will not beg.
3. This is the malt —— lay in the house —— Jack built.
4. I will have no such son-in-law —— thinks himself better than I (me).[57]
5. Tennyson, —— was the foremost poet of England, died in 1892.
6. Time —— is lost is never found again.
7. There are many —— saw him fall.
8. The soldiers and cannon —— you saw belong to the French army.
9. Who —— hears Professor C. read the court scene from "Pick wick" does not go away delighted?
10. She is the same girl since her marriage —— she was before it.
11. The dog dropped the bone, —— then fell into the water.
12. He —— does all —— he can does all —— can be expected.
13. Her hair, —— was dark brown, was gathered in a Grecian knot.
14. Tears, such —— angels weep, burst forth.
15. I have a water spaniel, —— follows me everywhere.
16. The horse —— ran away with Harry belonged to Mr. H.
17. Such —— I have I give you.
18. This is the same man —— I spoke of.
19. The diamond, —— is so highly prized, is pure carbon, —— in the form of charcoal is familiar to all.
20. All the men and horses —— were on the transports were drowned when the vessels sank.
21. The murdered innocents at Bethlehem were martyrs —— died for a king —— they had never seen.
22. What pleased me most, and —— has been most frequently mentioned by visitors to the fair, was the beauty of the buildings.
23. I trusted to my dog, —— knew the way better than I did.
24. Dr. A.'s report shows the same record of efficiency —— has always characterized his conduct.
25. Shakespeare was the greatest poet —— the English race has produced.
26. He spends all —— he earns.
27. The review of the National Guard of Pennsylvania by Sheridan was the largest military display —— I have seen.
28. Was it you or the wind —— made those noises?
29. We have invited the same girls —— were here yesterday.
30. It was the cat, not I or the wind, —— frightened you.
31. The dog —— my brother gave me ran away.
32. Do you know that man —— is just entering the car?
33. Such eloquence —— was heard in the Senate in those days!
34. He held the same political opinions —— his illustrious friend.
35.    "Nature ever faithful is
      To such —— trust her faithfulness."
36. Is this a dagger —— I see before me?
37. We saw the men and arms —— were captured.

Either or Any one, Neither or No one.[58]—Either means "one of the two"; neither, "no one of the two." When more than two persons or things are spoken of, "any one" is preferable to "either," and "no one" to "neither."

[57] See note, p. 45.
[58] "Foundations," pp. 69-70.

EXERCISE XXXII.

Insert the proper word or words ("either," "neither," "any one," "no
one") in each blank in the following sentences:—

1. Only three persons saw the fight, and —— of them would testify.
2. Has —— of you two gentlemen a fountain-pen?
3. I defy any candid and clear thinker to deny in the name of
inductive science —— of these six propositions.
4. When two persons disagree, it is not likely that —— is altogether wrong.
5. Has —— of you who have just come from the ball-field seen Julian?
6. I have several histories of France, —— of which will give you the information.
7. Here come Harry and Arthur; —— will go to get it for you.
8. Give it to the six successful students or to —— of them.

Each or all.[59]—Each denotes every one of any number taken one by one; all denotes the entire number taken together.

[[59] "Foundations," p. 70.

EXERCISE XXXIII.

Insert the proper word ("each," "all") in each blank:—

1. —— gave me his (their) hand(s).
2. —— of the workmen received two dollars a day.
3. —— of the children has (have) his (their) peculiar traits.
4. —— of the members is (are) entitled to a vote.
5. He gave an apple to —— of us.
6. Did your father bring the boat to Harry? No, he brought it to —— of us.
7. —— of them did his (their) duty.

Change of Pronoun.[60]—In referring to the same person or thing a writer should not change from one pronoun to another.

The possessive of "one" is "one's" (not "his"), except in such expressions as "every one," "no one," "many a one." The reflexive is "one's self."

It is a common but serious fault to begin to write in the third person, and then to change to the first or second.

[60] Ibid., pp. 72-74.

EXERCISE XXXIV.

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:—

1. The Second Regiment of the National Guard, —— was sent to Pittsburg during the strike, and —— is now in camp at Gettysburg, has six hundred members.
2. John started to school last Monday; we wish —— success.
3. Proud damsel, —— shalt be proudly met. I withdraw my pretensions to —— hand until I return from the war.
4. As —— hast said, —— lands are not endangered. But hear me before I leave ——.
5. The cat was crouching on the piazza and we were watching ——. Suddenly —— tail twitched nervously and —— prepared to spring.
6.     "Ere you remark another's sin,
      Bid —— conscience look within."
7. At first one is likely to wonder where the boats are, since on entering the grove —— is (are) able to see only a small cabin.
8. Dost —— talk of revenge? —— conscience, it seems, has grown dull.
9. As a Christian —— art obliged to forgive —— enemy.
10. Did you never bear false witness against —— neighbor?
11. The shepherd ran after a sheep and caught —— just as —— was jumping over a hedge.
12. The hen gathered —— brood under —— wing.
13. This is a book which I have never read, but one —— is recommended by Mrs. M.

EXERCISE XXXV.

1. Write the following note in clear and correct form, using the third person:—

"Mr. Smith presents his compliments to Mr. Jones, and finds he has a cap which isn't mine. So, if you have a cap which isn't his, no doubt they are the ones."[61]

2. Write a formal note in the third person, asking an acquaintance to dine with you at a certain hour in order that you may consult with him about some matter of importance.

3. Write a note in the third person accepting or declining this invitation.

4. Write a formal note in the third person to some gentleman to whom you have a letter of introduction, asking when it will be convenient to have you call.