Practical Grammar and Composition

93. Emphasis. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the minor details subordinated.

1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence.

2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in emphasis.

3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce a climax; i. e., have the most important come last.

4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought.

Exercise 69

Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles of emphasis:

1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity.
2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can.
3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not.
4. Will you please start up the machine.
5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom.
6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, was killed by being run over.
7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since.
8. All his friends were collected together.
9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except occasionally.
10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor.
11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even hack lines were affected by the change.
12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always.
13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain.
14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, without stopping at all.
15. He tried to do right so far as we know.
16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else.

94. Euphony. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound.

1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence.

Bad: He commanded his son to obey his commands.

2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce.

Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick.

3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable.

Bad: They went for a walk in order to talk.

Exercise 70

Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:

1. In the problems, he solved one once.
2. Most of the time he does the most he can.
3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes.
4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can be capable of such work.
5. Those are our books.
6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made.
7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger than fiction."
8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served so well.
9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium.
10. He acted very sillily.
11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise.
12. In his letters there is something fine in every line.
13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues.

Exercise 71. A General Exercise on Sentences

Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set forth:

1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.)
2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen in the evenings. (93-1.)
3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.)
4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.)
5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. (92-6.)
6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.)
7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.)
8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.)
9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.)
10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you fail to exercise. (93-1.)
11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.)
12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.)
13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. (92-7.)
14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.)
15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. (91-3-a.)
16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.)
17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started on a career of crime again. (93-1.)
18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.)
19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.)
20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.)
21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.)
22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not elevating. (92-3-b.)
23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.)
24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.)
25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties for more than five years. (91-1-a.)
26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. (92-3-a.)
27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.)
28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. (92-2).
29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, we had supper. (91-4.)
30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped without a scratch. (91-3.)
31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one his faults. (92-2.)
32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. (93-1.)
33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. (92-4.)
34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. (91-1.)
35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.)

CHAPTER VIII

CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION

Rules for Capitalization

95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc.

96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately.

Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley Cross Roads.

97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books.

The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery of America.

98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted.

He said, "Is it I whom you seek?"

He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned."

99. Capitalize the words, mother, father, etc., when used with proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns in phrases used as proper nouns.

Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square.

100. Capitalize the names, North, South, East, and West, when referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; the words, Bible and Scriptures; and the words I and O, but not oh unless it is at the beginning of a sentence.

Exercise 72

Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the last.

Rules for Punctuation

101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation is needed.

The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted:

The Period (.)

102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and (3) after Yes and No when used alone.

The Interrogation Point (?)

103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question.

The Exclamation Point (!)

104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence or expression.

Alas! It is too late.

Fire if you dare!

The Comma (,)

105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, unless conjunctions are used between all of those words.

Ours is a red, white, and blue flag.

He talked, smoked, and read.

He talked and smoked and read.

Do not, however, precede the series by a comma.

Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays.

Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays.

106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the noun.

An honest, upright man.

An old colored man.

A soiled red dress.

107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or phrases, and participial phrases.

John, come here.

By the way, did you see Mary?

After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon.

Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step.

108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see §29, Note 1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name.

He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school.

Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana.

109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed out of its natural order.

If it is possible, he will do it.

To most people, this will seem absurd.

110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use the dash or parenthesis.

That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without permission from the police.

Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured.

He, himself, said it.

111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See §§ 25 and 26.)

Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church.

But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother.

112. Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that are united by a simple conjunction.

He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public.

He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him.

113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence when those members are short and closely connected in their thought.

John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella.

114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses introduced by such words as if, when, though, unless the connection be close.

He did not stop, though I called repeatedly.

Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake in the work.

But: You are wrong when you say that.

115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence.

William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting.

But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend."

116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such as, however, then, also, for example, so to speak, etc.

Such a man, however, can seldom be found.

This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order.

117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, or whenever something clearly is omitted.

We want students, not boys who simply come to school.

Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ...

The Semicolon (;)

118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions.

He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably return to college.

119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to indicate a very definite pause.

I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the reason for it.

120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas.

As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty.

Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, and for his family he has not a cent.

Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; and for his family he has not a cent.

121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; such as, accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore, etc.

I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold.

John is sick; however, I think he will be here.

122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, namely, as, that is, etc., or before their abbreviations, viz., i.e., etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term.

At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist.

The Colon (:)

123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that constitutes an introduction to something that follows.

Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing it to you to-day."

There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter.

124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See §161.)

The Dash (—)

125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or construction.

I am pleased to meet you, Captain—what did you say your name is?

The man I met—I refer to Captain Jones—was in the naval service.

126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely some part of a sentence.

I was always lacking what I needed most—money.

127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up the preceding part of a sentence.

Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and Populists,—all were there.

128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other mark of punctuation.

The Parenthesis Marks ( )

129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of it.

He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town.

130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis.

They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case.

We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else.

Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses.

The Bracket [ ]

131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise.

His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] to deliver the address..."

The Quotation Marks (" ")

132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language of another.

The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long."

133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to do his duty.'"

134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last.

135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence of a single continuous quotation.

136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary invention.

137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation in the following sentences:

The Apostrophe (')

138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. See §§ 13 and 15.

Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters.

Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter?

The Hyphen (-)

139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a line.

Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, though, through, also, besides, over, etc.

Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second.

In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like expression by placing ex on one line and the rest of the word on the next line.

140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the hyphen. Only custom determines.

Always use a hyphen with to-day, to-morrow, and to-night.

Exercise 73

Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see §§ 143 and 144:

1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations because it is a very small town
2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh
3. will that be satisfactory was his question
4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not
5. whats the matter with you john
6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the knell of parting day
7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to new york city
8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church
9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general of great military training
10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion was represented
11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so
12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven and nine
13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore and taft
14. the verse to which you refer is as follows

    the boast of heraldry the pomp of power
    all that beauty all that wealth eer gave
    await alike the inevitable hour
    the paths of glory lead but to the grave

15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat
16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at seven at latest
17. the different points discussed are these first the history of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and third the result of the theory
18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply
19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period
20. william if you gear me answer
21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she understood
22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure
23. that may be true but i still doubt it
24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close
25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved
26. mary said yes but helen said no
27. he is called the peerless leader
28. such a man for example was lincoln
29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it
30. that too is a mistake
31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think
32. the english are stolid the french lively
33. in that case let us have war
34. such an opinion i may say is absurd
35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late
36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot
37. he means the house that has green shutters
38. those are all good books but none of them will do
39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray henry esmond
40. he is a good student and also a great athlete
41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief
42. having assigned the lesson he left the room
43. royers address is danville illinois
44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three
45. i had classes under the president dr harris
46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled
47. oh that is what you mean is it
48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper
49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god
50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river
51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history
52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war
53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it
54. he said then why are you here
55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their country could no longer raise a picked army
56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton
57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man
58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything.
59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned.

Note. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards inserting the proper marks.

CHAPTER IX

THE PARAGRAPH

141. The Paragraph is a connected series of sentences all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made.

The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change of topic at each new paragraph.

142. Paragraph Length. There is no fixed rule governing the proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions.

Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic.

143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose—to aid in gaining clearness.

144. Paragraphing of Speech. In a narrative, each direct quotation, together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed in writing a conversation. Examine the following:

A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. During the meal the hostess asked:

"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?"

"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs."

"Then have some more," said the woman.

The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the example just given.

145. Indentation of the Paragraph. The first sentence of each new paragraph should be indented. See example under §144. No other sentence should be so indented.

146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis.

Unity. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph:

Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm than the Irish. St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to have banished the snakes from the island. So enthusiastic were the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and monasteries....

Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey.

Wrong:

In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland.

Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running from Cleveland to Detroit.

From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train the next morning.

If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and manner of expression.

147. How to Gain Unity. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph.

With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by illustration; or by showing cause or effect.

148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized.

To rule was not enough for Bonaparte. He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency inspires.

From The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte, by Channing.

There is something in the very season of the year that gives a charm to the festivity of Christmas. At other times we derive a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious blue and its cloudy magnificence—all fill us with mute but exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity.

From Christmas, by Washington Irving.

149. Coherence. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together—it must not consist of disconnected pieces.

150. How to Gain Coherence. Where vividness or some other quality does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various sorts; as, it, this view, however, in this way, etc. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the paragraph.

Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind the paragraph topic.

I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the two books you have named. The first is interesting and easy to read. It is, also, by no means lacking in the value of the information it presents. But the second, while it is no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. In addition to this I think you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. Therefore, I should advise you to procure the second for your study. Either, indeed, will do, but since you have a choice, take the better one.

A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily prevail by an example. So he called his sons and bade them lay a bundle of sticks before him. Then having tied them up into a fagot, he told the lads, one after another, to take it up and break it. They all tried, but tried in vain. Then, untying the fagot, he gave them the sticks to break one by one. This they did with the greatest ease. Then said the father: "Thus, my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." Æsop's Fables.

Examine also the selections under §§ 205 and 206.

151. Emphasis. The third quality which a paragraph should possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph.

Exercise 74

The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student.

These topics are intended to apply only to isolated paragraphs—"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that more than one paragraph is unnecessary.

Write paragraphs:

1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, and giving your reasons for the refusal.
2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general appearance and then the details.
3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie.
4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play.
5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance.
6. To prove that the world is round.
7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.)
8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life than in country life.

Write paragraphs on the following subjects:

1. My Earliest Recollection.
2. The Sort of Books I Like Best.
3. Why I Like to Study X Branch.
4. My Opinion of My Relatives.
5. The Man I Room With.
6. Why I Was Late to Class.
7. What I Do on Sundays.
8. How to Prevent Taking Cold.
9. How to Cure a Cold.
10. My Best Teacher.
11. My Favorite Town.
12. Why I Go Fishing.
13. My Favorite Month.
14. What Becomes of My Matches.
15. Baseball is a Better Game than Football.
16. The View from X Building.
17. Why I Go to School.
18. My Opinion of Rainy Days.
19. My Most Useful Friend.
20. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties.
21. Why I Like to Visit at X's.
22. The Police Service of X Town.

CHAPTER X

LETTER-WRITING

Note to Teacher.—For the purpose of training in composition, in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition work.

In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. Others will readily occur to the teacher.

The Heading

152. Position of Heading. In all business letters the writer's address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an inch from the top. This address and date is called the heading. In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of the letter.

153. Order of Heading. The parts of the heading should be sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, should the above order be varied. Examples:

If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first line and the date on the second.

154. Punctuation of Heading. Place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street address, after the town address, after the state address, and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number of the year. Examine the correct address under §153.

155. Faults to be Avoided in Headings. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the business letter.

It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states.

Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: St. for Street; Ave. for Avenue; Apart. for Apartments; Chi. for Chicago; Phila. for Philadelphia.

Do not use the sign # before the street number.

Do not omit the word Street.

Do not write the date thus: 9/10/10. Represent the numbers by figures, not words. See §§ 75 and 76. Do not use st., rd., etc., after the number of the day.

The Inside Address

156. Position of Inside Address. In strictly commercial letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under §174.

In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters the inside address may be omitted.

157. Punctuation of Inside Address. In punctuating the inside address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or country. Examine the correct inside address under §174.

158. Faults to be Avoided in the Inside Address. Do not omit the town, city, or state address from the inside address.

Do not omit proper titles.

When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title Mr., before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute a partnership or trading name.

Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr. Abbreviations of titles placed after the name, such as, Esq., D.D., A.M., etc., are proper.

Do not use Mr. and Esq. with the same name.

Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better form to write the name in full. United States of America may be abbreviated to U. S. A.

Do not place a period after the title Miss. Miss is not an abbreviation.

The Salutation

159. Position of Salutation. The salutation should begin flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See correctly written letters under §174.

160. Form of Salutation. The salutation varies with the form of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, or My dear Sir, My dear Madam. For a group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, Gentlemen, Dear Sirs, Dear Madams or Mesdames are used. In less formal business letters such salutations as, My dear Mr. Smith, or Dear Miss Jaekel may be used.

In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly letters: My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear Friend, etc.

It is considered more formal to prefix My to the salutation.

It is over formal to use simply Sir or Madam in any letter, or to use Dear Sir or Dear Madam when writing to a familiar friend.

If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as Dear Brown, Dear John, etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close of the letter, or to omit it.

161. Punctuation of Salutation. Punctuate the salutation with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used.

162. Faults to be Avoided in the Salutation. Use no abbreviations except Dr., Mr., Mrs. Do not use the abbreviation Dr., when that title is used as a final word in a salutation.

Do not use a name alone as a salutation.

In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word of the salutation.

The Body of the Letter

163. The Subject Matter of the Letter. In friendly letters much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness.

164. Form of Body. The body of the letter usually begins on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model letters under §174.

In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the subject of a separate paragraph.

165. Faults in Body of the Letter. In letters that are intended to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should the "telegraph style" be adopted.

Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter.

It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun I in the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution to extremes. I, however, should not be omitted when necessary to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different form of sentence.

There is no objection to beginning a letter with I.

Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition.

Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection to the use of colloquial expressions such as can't, don't, etc.

Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate and unnecessary.

The Close

166. Final Words. Business letters frequently close with some final words, such as, Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am ..., A waiting your further orders, we are ..., etc. These expressions are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary.

167. The Complimentary Close. The complimentary close should be written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide to the choice of a complimentary close.

The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters:

The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters:

168. Faults in the Close. Do not use abbreviations, such as, Yrs. respy., yrs. try., etc.

169. The Signature of the Writer. The letter should be so signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. In formal letters it is customary for a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the following manner:

In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and after it the name of the writer. Example:

Miscellaneous Directions

170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page.

Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch or more beyond the margin.

In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, 2, 3, 4.

In the correctly written forms of letters under §174 observe the indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance in from the margin.

The Outside Address

171. Position of Outside Address. Place the address on the envelope so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed envelope under §173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope.