Practical Grammar and Composition

Exercise 15

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly. (See §108):

1. He —— said so.
2. I —— will do it.
3. We —— will look after her.
4. That, I tell you, is —— book.
5. It belongs to me ——.
6. Those books are my ——.
7. Let them —— pay for it.
8. The horse is to be for —— use.
9. The horse is to be for the use of ——.
10. He said it to ——.
11. He deceived ——.
12. I do not wish —— to be prominent.

32. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding ever, so, or soever to the relative pronouns, who, which, and what; as, whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whoso, whosoever, etc. It will be noted that whoever, whosoever, and whoso have objective forms, whomever, whomsoever, and whomso; and possessive forms, whosoever, whosesoever, and whoseso. These forms must be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. Thus, one should say, I will give it to whomever I find there. (See §29 and Note 3.)

Exercise 16

Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound relatives:

1. We will refer the question to —— you may name.
2. —— it may have been, it was not he.
3. I shall receive presents from —— I wish.
4. It was between him and —— was with him.
5. —— they may choose, I will not vote for him.
6. Let them name —— they think will win.
7. Give it to —— you think needs it most.
8. He may take —— he cares to.
9. He will take —— property he finds there.
10. He promised to ask the question of —— he found there.
11. —— can have done it?
12. —— else may be said, that is not true.
13. There are the two chairs; you may take —— you like.
14. —— you take will suit me.
15. You may have —— you wish.
16. —— is nominated, will you vote for him?
17. —— they nominate, I will vote for him.
18. —— does that is a partizan.
19. —— candidate is elected, I will be satisfied.
20. He may name —— he thinks best.
21. —— he says is worthy of attention.
22. —— she takes after, she is honest.
23. —— follows him will be sorry.
24. —— he may be, he is no gentleman.
25. —— they do is praised.

33. There are certain words, called Adjective Pronouns, which are regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly adjective in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never expressed; as, One (there is a possessive form, one's, and a plural form, ones), none, this, that, these, those, other, former, some, few, many, etc.

34. Some miscellaneous cautions in the use of pronouns:

1. The pronoun I should always be capitalized, and should, when used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, James and I were present, not I and James were present.

2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns in the same sentence; as, Thou wilt do this whether you wish or not.

3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; as, John, he did it, or Mary, she said. This is a frequent error in speech.

4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the uncertainty in the following sentence; He sent a box of cheese, and it was made of wood. The antecedent of it is not clear. Again, A man told his son to take his coat home. The antecedent of his is very uncertain. Such errors are frequent.

In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. Note the following sentence: A cat was found in the yard which wore a blue ribbon. The grammatical inference would be that the yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed to, A cat, which wore a blue ribbon, was found in the yard.

5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same relative pronoun to introduce them; as, The book that we found and the book that he lost are the same.

6. Use but that when but is a conjunction and that introduces a noun clause; as, There is no doubt but that he will go. Use but what when but is a preposition in the sense of except; as, He has no money but (except) what I gave him.

7. Them is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. Those is the adjective which should be used in its place; as, Those people, not, Them people.

8. Avoid using you and they indefinitely; as, You seldom hear of such things, They make chairs there. Instead, say, One seldom hears of such things, Chairs are made there.

9. Which should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. Both the following sentences are wrong: He sent me to see John, which I did. Their whispering became very loud, which annoyed the preacher.

10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, its, yours, theirs, ours and hers.

Exercise 17

Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the cautions above stated:

1. How can you say that when thou knowest better?
2. May I and Mary go to the concert?
3. He asked me to write to him, which I did.
4. Grant thou to us your blessing.
5. The train it was twenty minutes late.
6. Mother she said I might go.
7. Mary told her mother she was mistaken.
8. The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he would be angry.
9. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was.
10. That is the man whom we named and that did it.
11. Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost.
12. This is the book that we found and which he lost.
13. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she thought she had better go home.
14. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short.
15. Then Jack and George, they went home.
16. Bring them books here.
17. Them are all wrong.
18. There are no men in the room but that can be bought.
19. I have no doubt but what it was done.
20. Them there should be corrected.
21. I have faith in everything but that he says.
22. I have no fears but what it can be done.
23. Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine.
24. Thou knowest not what you are doing.
25. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done.
26. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes.
27. Keep them people out of here.
28. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow.
29. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like.
30. You never can tell about foreigners.
31. They say that is not true.
32. The cabin needed to be swept, which we did.
33. They use those methods in some schools.
34. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white.
35. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory.
36. How can you tell but what it will rain?
37. He does everything but what he should do.
38. He has everything but that he needs.
39. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen.
40. Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go.
41. Tell I and John about it.
42. He went to his father and told him he had sinned.
43. Dost thou know what you doest?
44. It's appearance was deceitful.
45. The chair was also their's.
46. There is a slight difference between mine and your's.
47. Which of the two is her's?
48. They are both our's.

CHAPTER IV

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

35. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both their forms and their use.

36. Comparison. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate the degree of modification they express is called Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison.

The Positive Degree indicates the mere possession of a quality; as, true, good, sweet, fast, lovely.

The Comparative Degree indicates a stronger degree of the quality than the positive; as, truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier.

The Superlative Degree indicates the highest degree of quality; as, truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest.

Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative is formed by adding er, and the superlative by adding est. If the word ends in y, the y is changed to i before adding the ending; as, pretty, prettier, prettiest.

Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most of them are compared by the use of the adverbs more and most, or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of less and least; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful, and less beautiful, least beautiful.

37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following:

Note.—Badly and forth may be used only as adverbs. Well is usually an adverb; as, He talks well, but may be used as an adjective; as, He seems well.

38. Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs. An adjective is often used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, She talks foolish, is wrong, because here the word to be modified is talks, and since talks is a verb, the adverb foolishly should be used. The sentence, She looks charmingly, means, as it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, charming, should have been used, and the sentence should read, She looks charming. Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should be used.

39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, both the following sentences are correct: He works hard (adverb), and His work is hard (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional ending ly; as, The track is smooth, (adjective), and The train runs smoothly, (adverb).

Exercise 18

In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the proper word to be used:

1. The sunset looks beautiful beautifully.
2. The man acted strange strangely.
3. Write careful carefully and speak distinct distinctly.
4. Speak slow slowly.
5. He acted bad badly.
6. He behaved very proper properly.
7. The boat runs smooth smoothly.
8. He is a remarkable remarkably poor writer.
9. I am in extremely extreme good health.
10. The typewriter works good well.
11. The bird warbles sweet sweetly.
12. He was terrible terribly angry.
13. He was in a terrible terribly dangerous place.
14. He talks plainer more plainly than he ever did before.
15. The dead Roman looked fierce fiercely.
16. The fire burns brilliant brilliantly.
17. You are exceeding exceedingly generous.
18. He struggled manful manfully against the opposition.
19. My health is poor poorly.
20. He is sure surely a fine fellow.
21. Have everything suitable suitably decorated.
22. That can be done easy easily.
23. I can speak easier more easily than I can write.
24. The music of the orchestra was decided decidedly poor.
25. She is a remarkable remarkably beautiful girl.
26. The wind roared awful awfully.
27. The roar of the wind was awful awfully.
28. I have studied grammar previous previously to this year.
29. I didn't study because I felt too bad badly to read.
30. The roses smell sweetly sweet.
31. They felt very bad badly at being beaten.
32. That violin sounds different differently from this one.
33. The soldiers fought gallant gallantly.
34. She looks sweet sweetly in that dress.
35. I can wear this coat easy easily.
36. Speak gentle gently to him.
37. He talks warm warmly on that subject.
38. He works well good and steady steadily.
39. He stood thoughtful thoughtfully for a moment and then went quiet quietly to his tent.
40. He walked down the street slow slowly, but all the time looked eager eagerly about him.
41. The music sounds loud loudly.
42. That coin rings true truly.
43. He looked angry angrily at his class.
44. He moved silent silently about in the crowd.
45. His coat fits nice nicely.
46. That is easy easily to do.
47. He went over the work very thorough thoroughly.

Exercise 19

The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly used. In every case show what they modify:

1. The water lay smooth in the lake.
2. She looked cold.
3. The train runs smoothly now.
4. The sun shone bright at the horizon.
5. The sun shone brightly all day.
6. She looks coldly about her.
7. Be careful in your study of these sentences.
8. Study these sentences carefully.
9. We found the way easy.
10. We found the way easily.
11. He looked good.
12. He looked well.
13. We arrived safe.
14. We arrived safely.
15. Speak gently.
16. Let your speech be gentle.

Exercise 20

Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:

Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously.

40. Improper Forms of Adjectives. The wrong forms in the following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms:

Exercise 21

Correct the errors in the following sentences:

1. She goes everywheres.
2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know.
3. Not muchly will I go.
4. Use the lesser quantity first.
5. He is nowhere near so bright as John.
6. You do the problem thusly.
7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy.
8. They came unbeknown to me.
9. He is a dark complected man.
10. It all happened unbeknownst to them.
11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual.

41. Errors in comparison are frequently made. Observe carefully the following rules:

1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. One should say, He is the larger of the two, not He is the largest of the two. But, He is the largest of the three, is right.

2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express absolute quality—adjectives that cannot be compared; as, round, perfect, equally, universal. A thing may be round or perfect, but it cannot be more round or most round, more perfect or most perfect.

3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, The discovery of America was more important than any geographical discovery, for that is saying that the discovery of America was more important than itself—an absurdity. But it would be right to say, The discovery of America was more important than any other geographical discovery. One should not say, He is the most honest of his fellow-workmen, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. One should say, He is more honest than any of his fellow-workmen, or, He is the most honest of all the workmen. To say, This machine is better than any machine, is incorrect, but to say, This machine is better than any other machine, is correct. To say, This machine is the best of any machine (or any other machine), is wrong, because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. To say, This machine is the best of machines (or the best of all machines), is correct.

Note the following rules in regard to the use of other in comparisons:

a. After comparatives followed by than the words any and all should be followed by other.

b. After superlatives followed by of, any and other should not be used.

4. Avoid mixed comparisons. John is as good, if not better than she. If the clause, if not better, were left out, this sentence would read, John is as good than she. It could be corrected to read, John is as good as, if not better than she. Similarly, it is wrong to say, He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, man in history.

Exercise 22

Choose the correct word from those italicized:

1. The older oldest of the three boys was sick.
2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the wealthiest wealthier.
3. Of two burdens choose the less least.
4. Which can run the fastest faster, John or Henry?
5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the first former is the better best known.
6. Which is the larger largest of the two?
7. Which is the best better of the six?
8. Which is the larger largest number, six or seven
9. Which is the more most desirable, health or wealth?
10. My mother is the oldest older of four sisters.
11. The prettier prettiest of the twins is the brighter brightest.
12. This is the duller dullest season of the year.
13. The other is the worse worst behaved of the two.
14. Which was the hotter hottest, yesterday or to-day?
15. That is the cleaner cleanest of the three streets.

Exercise 23

Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give a valid reason for each correction:

1. He was the most active of all his friends.
2. He is the brightest of all his brothers.
3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest.
4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania.
5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania.
6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia.
7. That theory is more universally adopted.
8. He was, of all others, the most clever.
9. This apple is more perfect than that.
10. No fruit is so good as the orange.
11. The orange is better than any fruit.
12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best.
13. The orange is the best of all the fruits.
14. The orange is better than any other fruit.
15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson.
16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity?
17. He was more active than any other of his companions.
18. This apple is rounder than that.
19. This apple is more nearly round than that.
20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city.
21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states.
22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania.
23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States.
24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states.
25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the world.
26. That book is as good if not better than mine.
27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes.
28. John is taller than any boy in his class.
29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals.
30. Iron is the more useful of the metals.
31. Iron is the most useful of the metals.
32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest.
33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal.
34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate.
35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures.

42. Singular and Plural Adjectives. Some adjectives can be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such adjectives as one, each, every, etc., can be used only with singular nouns. Such adjectives as several, various, many, sundry, two, etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun; as, Few are seen, Several have come.

The adjective pronouns this and that have plural forms, these and those. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say those kind is then incorrect. It should be those kinds. Those sort of men should be that sort of men or those sorts of men.

43. Either and neither are used to designate one of two objects only. If more than two are referred to, use any, none, any one, no one. Note the following correct sentences:

Neither John nor Henry may go.

Any one of the three boys may go.

44. Each other should be used when referring to two; one another when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences:

The two brothers love each other.

The four brothers love one another.

Exercise 24

Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able to give reasons:

1. He is six foot tall.
2. I like those kind of fruit.
3. He lost several pound.
4. I have not seen him this twenty year.
5. Have you heard these news?
6. Are they those kind of people?
7. He rode ten mile.
8. There were fifteen car-load of people.
9. These kind of books are interesting.
10. Several phenomenon marked his character.
11. There are a few crisis in every man's career.
12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle.
13. The poem has six verse in it.
14. Either of the five will do.
15. Little children should love each other.
16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as London.
17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books.
18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly.
19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it.
20. Either law or medicine is his profession.
21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train.
22. Those two statements contradict one another.
23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis.
24. How can he associate with those sort of men?

45. Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives. In the placing of adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to modify.

The adverb only requires especial attention. Generally only should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning.

Only he found the book.

He only found the book.

He found only the book.

He found the book only.

The placing of the words, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely, and quite, also requires care and thought.

Exercise 25

Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences:

1. I only paid five dollars.
2. I have only done six problems.
3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns.
4. The school is only open in the evening.
5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it.
6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke.
7. I never expect to see the like again.
8. A black base-ball player's suit was found.
9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before?
10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners.
11. People ceased to wonder gradually.
12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch.
13. I never wish to think of it again.
14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia.
15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country.
16. He only spoke of history, not of art.
17. I know hardly what to say.
18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature.
19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color.
20. He merely wanted to see you.

46. Double Negatives. I am here is called an affirmative statement. A denial of that, I am not here, is called a negative statement. The words, not, neither, never, none, nothing, etc., are all negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements.

Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. We haven't no books, means that we have some books. The proper negative form would be, We have no books, or We haven't any books. The mistake occurs usually where such forms as isn't, don't, haven't, etc., are used. Examine the following sentences:

Hardly, scarcely, only, and but (in the sense of only) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right and wrong forms:

Exercise 26

Correct the following sentences:

1. I can't find it nowhere.
2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was.
3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays.
4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech.
5. They didn't find no treasure.
6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all.
7. I haven't seen but two men there.
8. There isn't no one here who knows it.
9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire.
10. I can't hardly prove that statement.
11. I didn't feel hardly able to go.
12. She couldn't stay only a week.
13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began.
14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done.
15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife.
16. There isn't nothing in the story.
17. He doesn't do nothing.
18. I can't think of nothing but that.
19. He can't hardly mean that.
20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I.
21. He can't hardly come to-night.
22. It is better to not think nothing about it.
23. She can't only do that.
24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it.
25. There shan't none of them go along with us.
26. Don't never do that again.
27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant.
28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk.
29. He hasn't none of his work prepared.

47. The Articles. A, an, and the, are called Articles. A and an are called the Indefinite Articles, because they are used to limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, a book, a chair. But a or an is not used to denote the whole of that class; as, Silence is golden, or, He was elected to the office of President.

The is called the Definite Article because it picks out some one definite individual from a class.

In the sentence, On the street are a brick and a stone house, the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the sentence, On the street is a brick and stone house, since the article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone.

Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear only before the first of the two; as, God, the author and creator of the universe. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear before each; as, He bought a horse and a cow.

A is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound an is used. If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before each. Thus, one should say, An ax, a saw, and an adze (not An ax, saw and adze), made up his outfit. Generally it is better to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same.

Do not say, kind of a house. Since a house is singular, it can have but one kind. Say instead, a kind of house, a sort of man, etc.

Exercise 27

Correct the following where you think correction is needed:

1. Where did you get that kind of a notion?
2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl.
3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts.
4. The boy and girl came yesterday.
5. Neither the man nor woman was here.
6. He was accompanied by a large and small man.
7. He planted an oak, maple and ash.
8. The third of the team were hurt.
9. The noun and verb will be discussed later.
10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper.
11. Read the third and sixth sentence.
12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical.
13. He is dying from the typhoid fever.
14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the association.
15. What sort of a student are you?
16. He is a funny kind of a fellow.
17. Bring me a new and old chair.
18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea.
19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis.
20. Lock the cat and dog up.

48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when very or too are used with past participles that are not also recognized as adjectives; as,

Poor: I am very insulted. He was too wrapped in thought to notice the mistake.

Right: I am very much insulted. He was too much wrapped in thought to notice the mistake.

Exercise 28

Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. Be sure that they are used correctly.

Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very.

CHAPTER V

VERBS

49. A Verb has already been defined as a word stating something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, I talk, I talked, I shall talk, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed or incompleted action; as, I have talked, I shall have talked, etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, the name Tense is given.

The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, He may have gone home. Here the verb is may have gone. The last word of such a verb phrase is called the Principal Verb, and the other words the Auxiliaries. In the sentence above, go (gone) is the principal verb, and may and have are the auxiliaries.

50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These are called the Principal Parts.

The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is referred to as a word, may be called the Name-Form. The following are name-forms: do, see, come, walk, pass.

The Second Principal Part is called the Past Tense. It is formed by adding ed to the name-form; as, walked, pushed, passed. These verbs that add ed are called Regular Verbs. The verb form is often entirely changed; as, done (do), saw (see), came (come). These verbs are called Irregular Verbs.

The Third Principal Part is called the Past Participle. It is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both of them. Examples: done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, came), set (set, set).

51. The name-form, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, I go, We come, You see, Horses run.

The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (may, might, can, must, will, should, shall, etc.) to assert futurity, determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: I may go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run.

By preceding it with the word to, the name-form is used to form what is called the Present Infinitive; as, I wish to go, I hope to see.

What may be called the s-form of the verb, or the singular form, is usually constructed by adding s or es to the name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots.

The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: He has (present tense), He has gone (perfect tense), He has been seen.

Some verbs have no s-form; as, will, shall, may. The verb be has two irregular s-forms: Is, in the present tense, and was in the past tense. The s-form of have is has.

52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., it should never be used with any auxiliaries. To use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are past tense forms: went, saw, wore, tore. To say, therefore, I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore, would be grossly incorrect.

53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other hand, can never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary. The following are distinctly past participle forms: done, seen, sung, etc. One could not then properly say, I seen, I done, I sung, etc.

The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense and past participle are always the same, and so no error could result from their confusion.

The past participle is used to form the Perfect Infinitives; as, to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen.

54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. The student should bear in mind always that, the past tense form should never be used with an auxiliary, and that the past participle form should never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary.

In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect forms are often used.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

Notes.—Ought has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. I had ought to go is incorrect. The idea would be amply expressed by I ought to go.

Model conjugations of the verbs to be and to see in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter.

Exercise 29

In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:

1. Our books lie on the mantel.
2. John comes in and lays his books on the desk.
3. I see the parade.
4. He runs up the road.
5. They set their chairs in a row.
6. The noise wakes me.
7. Cæsar bids him enter.
8. If they prove their innocence, they should be discharged.
9. His friends plead strongly for him.
10. Do you know what they mean by that?
11. I awake early every morning.
12. He begins to think of strange things.
13. The children beseech me to go with them.
14. My mother bids me to say that she will be here at six.
15. Smith bids fifty dollars for the chair.
16. My servants break many dishes.
17. They choose their associates.
18. The box bursts open.
19. His mother chides him for his misbehavior.
20. He comes here every day.
21. I deal there this week.
22. The boys dive beautifully.
23. You do so much more than is necessary.
24. They draw lots for the watch.
25. Jones drinks this wine very seldom.
26. They drive over to Milton once a week.
27. They drive a sorrel horse.
28. The cows eat grass.
29. The Gauls flee before Cæsar.
30. The swallows all fly into the chimney at evening.
31. They forsake the cause without any reason.
32. Cæsar gives them no answer.
33. They get no money for their services.
34. You forget that we have no right to do that.
35. Water freezes at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.
36. The ball goes to the opposing team.
37. You hang the rope on the tree.
38. The sheriff hangs the murderer at noon.
39. I know of nothing more worrying.
40. She lays the knife on the table.
41. They lie in bed until eleven.
42. Why they rise so late, I do not know.
43. They raise no objection.
44. John runs very rapidly.
45. You sit very quietly.
46. Cæsar seeks to learn the intention of the enemy.
47. The politician vigorously shakes all hands.
48. The roof sheds water in all storms.
49. The blacksmith shoes horses.
50. The choir sings for each service.
51. You speak too rapidly to be easily understood.
52. Few men steal because they want to.
53. I swim one hundred yards very readily.
54. They teach all the elementary branches there.
55. You take all subscriptions for the concert.
56. Those clothes tear readily.
57. They tread the grapes in making wine.
58. Who throws paper on the floor?
59. I always wear old clothes in which to work.
60. She writes to her mother daily.
61. They weave the best rugs in Philadelphia.

Exercise 30

Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly used:

Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written.

Exercise 31

Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of each group:

1. Begin. He —— to act at once. The reports —— to disturb him a little. He has —— to feel hurt over them.
2. Bid. The proprietor —— us a pleasant good day. No matter how much he —— the auctioneer will not hear him. We were —— to enter.
3. Blow. The cornetist —— with all his might. The ship was —— about all day. The wind does —— terrifically sometimes. It may —— to-night. The wind —— all last night.
4. Break. He fell and —— his leg. It is well that his neck was not ——.
5. Burst. During the battle the shells frequently —— right over us. Oaken casks have often ——.
6. Chide. He —— us frequently about our actions. He was never —— himself.
7. Choose. They —— him president. They have —— wisely.
8. Come. He —— at nine to-day. He has always —— earlier heretofore. Let him —— when he wishes.
9. Deal. Before explaining the game, he —— out the cards.
10. Dive. Twice last summer he —— off the bridge.
11. Do. Thou canst not say I —— it. He often —— it.
12. Draw. The picture was —— by a famous artist. He formerly —— very well, but I think that now he —— very poorly.
13. Drive. The horse was —— twenty miles. He almost —— it to death.
14. Eat. He —— everything which the others had not ——. How can he —— that?
15. Flee. Since the cashier has ——, they think that a warrant would be useless.
16. Fly. The air-ship —— three hundred miles on its first trip. That it has —— so far is sufficient proof of its success.
17. Forsake. He —— his new friends just as he had —— all the others.
18. Freeze. The man was —— stiff. He evidently —— to death so easily because he had been so long without food.
19. Give. She was not —— as much as her sisters. Her father —— her less because of her extravagance. But, he now —— her enough to make it up.
20. Go. She —— to school to-day. She —— yesterday. She has —— every day this month.
21. Know. He —— that he cannot live. As long as I have —— him, this is the first time I ever —— he was married.
22. Mean. He —— to do right, and has always —— to do so.
23. Ride. They —— as if they had —— a long distance. They say that they —— from Larimer this morning.
24. Plead. The mother —— an hour for her son's life.
25. Prove. They —— him a thief in the eyes of the people, even if he was not —— so to the satisfaction of the jury.
26. Run. John —— the race as though he had —— races all his life. The race was —— very rapidly. Soon after that race, he —— in another race.
27. See. Smith, who has just arrived, says he —— two men skulking along the road. He was not —— by them. That play is the best I ever ——.
28. Seek. The detectives —— all through the slums for him. Now they —— him in the better parts of the city. No criminal was ever more eagerly ——.
29. Shake. During the day his hand was —— five hundred times. He —— hands with all who came.
30. Shoe. The entire army was —— with Blank's shoes.
31. Sing. The choir —— the anthem as they had never —— it before. They always —— it well.
32. Sink. The stone —— as soon as it is in the water. The ship was —— in forty fathoms of water. They —— the ship in 1861.
33. Speak. Though they claimed that they always —— to her, she was really never —— to by any member of the family.
34. Steal. The money was ——; whether or not he —— it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently —— goods from the store.
35. Take. I was —— for him several times that day. No one ever —— me for him before.
36. Teach. John —— school every day. He has —— for ten years. He first —— when he was eighteen years old.
37. Tear. The dog —— at the paper until it was —— entirely to pieces. He —— up everything he finds.
38. Throw. He was —— by a horse which never before —— anyone.
39. Wear. The trousers were —— entirely out in a month, but I —— the coat and vest for six months.
40. Weave. This carpet was —— at Philadelphia. The manufacturers say they never —— a better one, and they —— the best in the country.
41. Write. Although he has —— several times, he has never —— anything about that. He —— to me just last week. He —— at least once a month.

Exercise 32

Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:

1. He plead all day to be released.
2. The horse was rode to death.
3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth.
4. He was immediately threw out of the room.
5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day.
6. I never seen anything like it.
7. He was very much shook by the news.
8. The matter was took up by the committee.
9. The horse has been stole from the owner.
10. Goliath was slew by David.
11. The words have been spoke in anger.
12. I have went to church every day.
13. Was the river froze enough for skating?
14. He begun to take notice immediately.
15. The umbrella was blew to pieces.
16. I have broke my ruler.
17. Jones was chose as leader of the class.
18. He said he come as soon as he could.
19. I done it.
20. I have never did anything so foolish.
21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box.
22. The horse was drove ten miles.

Exercise 33

Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly used:

begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, threw, wore, wrote.

55. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. A Transitive Verb is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, He killed the horse, I keep my word. In both these sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action does not go to a receiver, are called Intransitive Verbs.

56. Active and Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents the subject as the doer of the action; as, I tell, I see, He makes chairs. The Passive Voice represents the subject as the receiver of the action; as, I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are made by me. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice.

57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell, and fall. Note again the principal parts of these verbs:

The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice.

NOTES.—The following exceptions in the use of sit and set are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: The sun sets, The moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest, and He set out for Chicago.

Lie, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, lie, lied, lied. Lie, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with lie meaning to recline. The present participle of lie is lying.

Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form.

Exercise 34

Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words:

Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied.

Exercise 35

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. Let sleeping dogs lay.
2. The sun has sat in the golden west.
3. He has laid in bed all morning.
4. He will sit out on his journey this morning.
5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes.
6. He sat the chair by the table.
7. He awoke everybody at daylight.
8. He laid down to sleep.
9. Let him lie there until he wakes.
10. The shower has lain the dust.
11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders.
12. The river has risen four feet.
13. Falling trees is his amusement.
14. To have been awaked then would have been sad.
15. To have waked then would have been sad.
16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey.
17. He has set there all day.
18. He lay the papers before the judge.
19. The judge laid the papers aside.
20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.

Exercise 36

In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated:

SIT AND SET

1. I —— in that seat all the evening.
2. Please —— here until I return.
3. He was still ——ting there on my return.
4. The sun —— in the west.
5. He —— out for home yesterday.
6. —— down and rest awhile.
7. James —— down and talked to me.
8. He was engaged in ——ting out flowers.
9. I —— the bucket on the rock above the bridge.
10. Last evening we —— at the table for more than an hour.
11. —— here until I call my mother.
12. —— the lamp on the table.
13. He has —— there all day.
14. The chair was —— by the desk.
15. I usually —— up until twelve.
16. She —— the hen on some eggs and she remained —— there.
17. She told me to —— there, and I —— down.
18. By whom has the lamp been —— there?
19. I —— my chair by the window and —— there all the afternoon.
20. How can she —— still for so long?
21. The moon —— at twelve.

LAY AND LIE

1. I —— down this afternoon to rest.
2. I —— in bed until late every morning.
3. I have frequently —— in bed until eleven.
4. He always —— his books on the desk.
5. He just now —— his books on the desk.
6. He has —— them there every morning.
7. His books have sometimes —— there all day.
8. His books have sometimes been ——ing there before I arrive.
9. 9. After he —— down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk.
10. Will it not be well for you to —— down for a while?
11. I —— on the grass yesterday for an hour or more.
12. I have —— down and feel much better.
13. Now I —— me down to sleep.
14. The scene of the play is —— in rural Pennsylvania.
15. The tramps —— behind the barn waiting for dawn.
16. I had —— down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey.
17. The floor was —— by an expert carpenter.
18. She told me to —— the matter before the teacher.
19. —— down, Fido.
20. When we are weary, we —— down.
21. Who —— that on the table?
22. He has repeatedly —— about the matter.
23. He —— without the slightest hesitation.
24. ——ing down is a good way to rest.
25. ——ing is a sin.
26. He —— to his father, and his father knew it.

RAISE AND RISE (ARISE)

1. I will —— and go unto my father.
2. He has —— early to-day.
3. I do not know why he —— so early.
4. —— your hand if you know.
5. Everyone —— his hand.
6. They have all —— their hands.
7. All their hands were —— at once.
8. The price of meat has ——.
9. The bread would not ——.
10. I —— in order that I might see better.
11. The flag was very carefully ——.
12. He tried to —— himself from the condition into which he had fallen.
13. The curtain is to —— at eight. I myself shall see to ——ing it then.
14. The boy —— and answers.
15. He is —— rapidly to prominence.
16. Will you please —— the window?
17. The safe was —— by means of a rope.
18. It is like trying to —— one's self by one's boot-straps.
19. —— and march to the front of the room.
20. The river —— rapidly.

FELL AND FALL

1. Gladstone, when living, —— a tree each morning for exercise.
2. To —— an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength.
3. He was —— to the earth by a blow from a club.
4. To —— often is to be expected in learning to skate.
5. ——ing down is a small matter to the young.
6. He has often —— from the roof of the porch.
7. After he —— once, he seemed to try to do so again.
8. I did not see him——.
9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ——.
10. Let the tree be —— across the road.
11. It is hard to avoid ——ing on the ice.

AWAKE AND WAKE

1. Have them —— me very early.
2. He went upstairs and —— his brother.
3. His brother did not wish to be —— so early.
4. This morning I —— at dawn.
5. It is unpleasant to —— so early.
6. You say that you have never —— after nine?
7. Who —— so early, this morning?
8. He would not say who —— him.
9. ——ing in the dead of night is unpleasant.
10. ——ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence.
11. The sun —— me early.
12. The whole country-side seemed to —— at once.
13. He had himself —— at six o'clock.

58. Mode. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the Indicative Mode is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, and the Subjunctive Mode is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt.

59. Forms of the Subjunctive. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb be, and in the present tense of active verbs. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of be:

If is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede the subject.

Note.—It will be noticed that thou art and thou wast, etc., have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, these are the proper forms to be used here, even though you are and you were, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single person.

In the subjunctive of be, it will be noted that the form be is used throughout the present tense; and the form were throughout the past tense.

In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, indicative, he runs, she sees, it seems, he has; subjunctive, if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have.

Note.—An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive.

60. Use of Indicative and Subjunctive. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is regarded as true: If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal. Similarly: If he is rich, he ought to be charitable. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode.