| Raw materials[14] | Cotton. Nitrating acid. Ether-alcohol (solvent). Denitrating chemicals. |
| Labour | (a) Nitrating and preparing collodion. Denitrating and bleaching. (b) Textile operations. Spinning. Winding and twisting. Rewinding. |
| Power | Making, filtering, and distributing collodion. Driving textile machinery. |
Added to which are the costs of expert management and supervision and general establishment expenses. It is evident that raw materials make up a large fraction of the total cost; also that a very large item is the waste work of converting the cellulose into nitrate, only to remove the nitric groups so soon as the cellulose is obtained as thread.
It is clear that the aqueous solutions of cellulose have a double advantage in this respect—not only do they readily yield an approximately pure cellulose as a direct product of regeneration or decomposition, but the first cost of the solution is very much less. With these newer products, therefore, the spinning problem enters on a new phase of struggle. It is certain that at selling prices at or about 5s. to 7s., very large markets will be open to the product or products. The two processes which are or may be able to fulfil this demand are those based (1) on cuprammonium solutions of cellulose, (2) on the sulphocarbonate or viscose. As regards first cost of the solution the latter has a large advantage. One ton of wood pulp (at 12l.) can certainly be obtained in solution in a condition ready for spinning at a total cost (materials) of less than 30l. The cuprammonium process, so far as 'outside' information goes, requires for production of the solution (1) cotton as raw material, (2) ammonia (calc. as concentrated aqueous) equal to 1-1/2 times its weight, and (3) metallic copper 25 p.ct. of its weight; and the costs are approximately 100l. per ton. It is obvious that the materials are recoverable from the precipitating-bath, but at a certain added cost. We have no statements as to the proportion recoverable nor the costs incurred, and we are therefore unable to measure the total net cost of the regenerated cellulose by this process. It is certainly much less than by the collodion processes. As to the textile quality of the thread, the product has not yet been on a sufficiently wide selling basis for that to have been determined. There are a great many factors which enter here. Not merely the external characters of lustre, softness, and translucency, but the all-important quality of uniformity of thread. The collodion-spinning is a process still very defective in this respect, and the defect is no doubt referable to the difficulty of securing absolute physical invariability of the collodion. It is to be regretted, in the interests of scientific development, that none of the technologists who have published investigations of these processes have entered into the discussion of the fundamental factors of the spinning processes; we are, therefore, unable at this stage to discuss these elements of a full comparison in greater detail. We cannot, for this reason, say how far the cuprammonium process diverges in point of control from the standard of the collodion processes. Of the 'viscose' product we have a more intimate knowledge, and it certainly reaches a higher general standard than the older and now well-known artificial silks. The process is also sufficiently developed to enable the total costs of production to be estimated at a figure less than one-half that of the 'collodion' processes. This would assure to this system an entrée in this country, and a basis of expansion limited only by the ordinary laws of supply and demand.
This prospect is opened up precisely at the moment when, for various reasons connected both with the difficulties of manufacture and the narrowing of the margin of profit, the proprietors of the two systems of collodion-spinning have decided to abandon all idea of manufacturing by these systems in this country.[15] We leave the discussion of the industrial problem at this point.
In regard to other developments based upon the exceptional character and properties of the sulphocarbonate, their further discussion will exemplify no general principles; and as regards technical detail they have been dealt with in the papers previously noticed.
As a purely general question, if there is to be any industry in these 'artificial' forms of cellulose, commensurate with the magnitude that usually belongs to the cellulose industries, it must come by way of a plastic or soluble form prepared at low cost, and conserving the essential molecular properties of the cellulose aggregate. These are the particular features of the sulphocarbonate. The obvious difficulties in the way of its industrial applications are those caused by the presence of alkali and sulphur compounds. These are dealt with by appropriate chemical means; but the fact that there is a special chemistry of the product has rendered its industrial progress slow. The work of the last five years in this, as in other applications of cellulose in its many derived forms, has resulted in a considerable addition to the domain of practical chemistry.
Further developments will make an increasing demand upon our grasp of the fundamental constitutional problems, to which it is the main purpose of the present volume to contribute.
FOOTNOTES:
[11] This is the most complete notice that has appeared and the bibliography is exhaustive. The publication comes into our hands too late to be noticed in detail.
[12] Text-book on Paper-making, Cross and Bevan (Spon, London: second edition, 1900). Chemistry of Paper-making, Griffin and Little (New York, 1894: Howard Lockwood & Co.). Handbuch d. Papierfabrikation, C. Hofmann (Berlin). Paper Trade Review, London (weekly). Papier-Zeitung, Berlin.
[13] William Mather, M.P., of the firm of Mather & Platt, Limited, Manchester.
[14] The actual costs varying considerably in the various countries, we cannot make any specific statement. But from estimates we have made, the costs of obtaining cotton in filtered solution as collodion multiply its value by 12-14, the denitrations adding further costs and raising this multiple to 18-20. In the same estimates we arrived at the conclusion that the item for raw materials made up 60 p.ct. of the total cost of the yarn.
[15] The recent failure of a French company founded for the exploitation of the cuprammonium process may be taken as showing that it presents very considerable technical difficulties. It is a matter of common knowledge that this company estimated the costs of production to be such as to enable the product to be sold at 12 fr. per kilo., whereas the costs actually obtaining were a large multiple of this figure.
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Bardy, C. H., 157
Bokorny, T., 43
Bronnert, E., 54
Bumcke, G., and Wolffenstein, R., 67
Buntrock, 25
Cross, C. F., 139, 152, 155
Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., 92
Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Briggs, J. F., 118
Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Heiberg, T., 114
Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Smith, C., 101, 103, 105, 114, 145
De Haas, R. W. T., and Tollens, B., 151
Faber, O. v., and Tollens, B., 71
Feilitzen, H. v., and Tollens, B., 154
Fenton, H. J. H., 8
Fenton, H. J. H., and Gostling, M., 86
Fraenkel, A., and Friedlaender, P., 26
Gardner, P., 22
Gilson, E., 112
Hancock, W. C., and Dahl, O. W., 135
Hoffmeister, W., 96, 100
Kleiber, A., 97
Kröber, E., 121
Krüger, M., 119
Lange, H., 25
Lewes, V. H., 15
Luck, A., and Cross, C. F., 45
Margosches, B. M., 159
Morrell, R. S., and Crofts, J. M., 114
Mylius, F., 21
Nastukoff, H., 74
Omelianski, V., 76
Ruff, O., 117
Salkowski, E., 113
Schöne, A., and Tollens, B., 124
Seidel, H., 149
Sherman, H. C., 137
Simonsen, E., 146
Storer, F. H., 142
Strehlenert, R. W., 158
Suringar, H., and Tollens, B., 16, 124
Süvern, C., 63
Tollens, B., 148, 151
Tollens, B., and Glaubitz, H., 122
Vignon, L., 43, 70, 72, 94
Will, W., and Lenze, P., 41
Winterstein, E., 109, 144, 153
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Acetone, action on cellulose nitrates of diluted, 46
Acid-cellulose, 68
Acids, volatile, from cellulose, 145
Æschynomene aspera, 135
Alcohol from cellulose and wood, 146
Alcoholic soda, mercerisation results with, 26
Alkali-cellulose, effects of long storage on, 31
Amyloid, vegetable, 153
Arabinose from gluconic acid, 117
'Ash' of plants, 13
Bacterium xylinum, 85
Barley plant, chemical processes in the, 103
---- straw, carbohydrates of, 105
Bleaching, 166
Bran, digestion of, 139
Brommethylfurfural, 8, 84, 86
Carbohydrates, action of hydrogen bromide on, 86;
action of hydrogen peroxide on, 114;
nitrated, as food for mould fungi, 43;
nitrates of, 41;
quantitative separation of, 96
Carbohydrates of barley straw, 105;
of wheat, 137;
of yeast, 113
'Caro's reagent,' 118
'Celloxin,' 71
Cellulose, alcohol from, 146;
constitution of, 77, 92;
fermentation of, 76;
industrial uses of, 155;
iodine reaction of, 21;
methods for the estimation of, 3, 4, 16, 19, 97;
nitration of, 43;
saccharification of, 73;
ultimate hydrolysis of, 11;
volatile acids from, 145
---- acetates, monoacetate, formation of, 40;
tetracetate, constitution of, 80
---- benzoates, 34;
from structureless cellulose, 36;
from three varieties of cotton, 35;
monobenzoate, properties of, 36;
dibenzoate, properties of, 37;
acetylation of, 130;
nitration of, 38
---- derivatives, commercial aspects of, 171;
saccharification of, 73
---- nitrates, 44, 45, 83;
structureless, 45, 51;
cupric reducing power of, 73;
instability of, 50, 53
---- sulphocarbonate, 27;
effects of the nature of the cellulose, 28;
---- —— solutions, analysis of, 32;
iodine reaction of, 33;
loss of carbon bisulphide, 33;
viscosity of, 30
Cell-wall constituents, 97
Cereal celluloses, 101, 105
Chitin, 112
Chlorination, Cross and Bevan's method, 19;
statistics of, 134
Chloro-lignone, 126
Collodion. See Silk, artificial
Cotton, lustreing effect of mercerisation, 23;
mercerised, structural properties of, 25;
pentosane content of, 148
'Crude fibre,' 17
Cuprammonium solvent, 21, 58, 173
Currants, pectin of, 152
Denitration of collodion silk, 56;
of jute nitrate, 133;
products of, 74
Dioxybutyric acid, 71
Elder pith, 137
Eriodendron, seed hair of, 92
Explosives, 44;
sporting powders, 52
Fermentation of cellulose, 76;
of furfuroids, 108;
of sugar from wood, 148
Fibres, report on miscellaneous, 139
Flax boiling, 168;
spinning, 161
Fodder plants, pentosanes of, 122
Fungi, tissue constituents of, 109
Furfural from cellulose, oxycellulose, and hydrocellulose, 70;
derivative from lævulose, 8;
estimation as hydrazone and phloroglucide, 119, 121;
oxidation of, 114, 118 (refer also 'Pentosanes')
Furfuroids, 8, 10, 102, 105;
assimilation of, 108
Gabriel's method of cellulose estimation, 18
Gluconic acid, action of hydrogen peroxide on, 117
Glucosamin, 112
Hemicellulose, 96, 97;
determination and separation of, 100
Hönig's method of cellulose estimation, 18
'Hydralcellulose,' 68
Hydrocellulose, 73;
nitration of, 43
Hydrogen peroxide, oxidations with, 114
Hydroxyfurfural in lignocellulose, 9, 116, 118
Incandescent mantles of artificial silk, 14, 15
Industrial appliances of cellulose, 155
Iodine reaction of cellulose, 21
Isosaccharinic acid, 71
Jute, composition of, 141;
quality of, 140;
treatment of, 142 (refer also Lignocellulose)
---- acetate, 129
---- benzoate, 127;
acetylation of, 130;
nitration of, 132
---- nitrate, 131
Ketoses, physiological importance of, 9
Lange method of cellulose estimation, 18, 98
Lead compounds of nitrated carbohydrates, 49
Lignin, 100
Lignocellulose, constitution of, 133;
esters of, 125;
hydroxyfurfural in, 9;
new type of, 135
Lignone complex, properties of, 126
'Lignorosin,' 151
'Lustra-cellulose.' See Silk, artificial
Malt, pentosanes of, 122
Mather system of boiling textiles, 167
Mercerization, 22;
shrinkage during, 24
Mercerised yarn, strength and elasticity of, 25, 26
Methylhydroxyfurfural, 84
Mould fungi, nitrated carbohydrates as food for, 43
Mycosin, 113
Nitrated carbohydrates, lead compounds of, 49
Nitrates of carbohydrates, 41
Nitrocellulose (see Cellulose nitrates);
silk, 55
'Normal' cellulose, definition of, 27
Normal paper, 160
Oxycellulose esters, 72;
nitration of, 43;
researches on, 71, 72, 74;
résumé of properties, 94
Oxygluconic acid, 117
Paper, deterioration of, 155;
normal standard, 160;
pulp, spinning of, 169
Peat, constituents of, 154
Pectins, 151, 152
Pentosanes, 100, 109, 144;
constituents of cotton, 124;
constituents of fodder, 122;
estimation of, 121;
of seeds during germination, 124
'Permanent tissue,' 103
Phloroglucinol, 119, 121
Plant tissues, carbohydrates of, 96, 97, 99
Plants, source of unsaturated compounds in, 145
Powders, manufacture of sporting, 52
Saccharification of cellulose and derivatives, 73
Schulze method of cellulose estimation, 18, 98
Schweizer solution, 101
Seeds, pentosanes in germinating, 124
Silica in plant tissues, 13
Silk, artificial, 54, 62, 63, 172;
bibliography of, 60;
from cuprammonium, 58, 64, 173;
from nitrocellulose (collodion), 55, 63, 172;
from viscose, 59;
from zinc chloride, 59;
reactions of, 64
---- natural, reactions of, 64
Straws, 101, 105
Succinic acid from furfural, 118
Sulphite waste liquors, 149, 164
'Swedish' filter paper, 14
Tissue constituents, 99, 109
Trees, composition of trunk woods, 142
Viscose and viscoid, 157, 158, 159
---- silk, 59, 175
---- —— specific gravity of, 34 (refer also Cellulose
sulphocarbonate)
'Vulcanised fibre,' 20
Weende, method of cellulose estimation (crude fibre), 17, 98
Welsbach mantles, 14;
Clamond type, 15
Wheat grain, insoluble carbohydrates of, 137
Wood, alcohol from, 146, 148
Wood-cellulose, waste liquors, 149
Wood-gum, 144
Wood-pulp, processes, 162
Wood, trunks of trees, 142
Yeast, carbohydrates of, 113
Zinc chloride, artificial silk, 59;
solvent action of, 20