Rhetoric and Poetry in the Renaissance / A Study of Rhetorical Terms in English Renaissance Literary Criticism

In his dedication to Volpone he says this power of persuasion which the poet possesses to so eminent a degree is to be applied to the moral well-being of men, "to inform men in the best reason of living."[423] Himself a writer for the theatre, Jonson is naturally more concerned with comedy and tragedy than he is with any narrative forms of poetry. And to him the office of the comic poet is "to imitate justice and instruct to life--or stirre up gentle affections."[424] In Timber he iterates the same praise of poetry as being no less effective than philosophy in instructing men to good life, and informing their manners, but as even more effective in that it persuades men to good where philosophy threatens and compels. In order to accomplish this beneficial effect on public morals, the poet must have an exact knowledge of all virtues and vices with ability to render the one loved and the other hated.[425] As a natural result of this conception, so similar to Cicero's demand that the orator must know all things and in line with Aristotle's Rhetoric, Jonson concludes that the poet, like Quintilian's orator, must himself be a good man; for how else will he be able "to informe yong-men to all good disciplines, inflame growne-men to all great vertues, keepe old men in their best and supreme state."[426]

Aside from Sidney and Jonson no English critic, however, thought through to the logical conclusion that in moral purpose rhetoric and poetic are identical. The others continued to echo Horace, or lean toward allegory, or see profit in poetry from its moral example. For instance in his preface to his second instalment of Homer entitled Achilles' Shield (1598) Chapman dwells at length on the moral value and wisdom contained in the Iliad,[427] and enunciates the same idea in his Prefaces of 1610-16.[428] Peacham, in his Compleat Gentleman (1622), repeats the usual commonplaces to the effect that poetry is a dulcet philosophy, for the most part lifted from Puttenham.[429] In his Argenis (1621) Barclay reminds his reader of the children who for so many centuries had shunned the cup of physic until the bitter taste had been removed by sweet syrop. Thus also, says he, is it with the moral value of poetry disguised with sweet music. "Virtues and vices I will frame, and the rewards of them shall suite to both"; for it is on the moral example of poetic justice that Barclay depends. The models of virtue will be followed.[430]

The Earl of Stirling, in Anacrisis (1634?) acknowledges the works of the poets to be the chief springs of learning, "both for Profit and Pleasure, showing Things as they should be, where Histories represent them as they are." Consequently he has a high opinion of the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, the Arcadia of Sir Philip Sidney, and other such poems, as "affording many exquisite Types of Perfection for both the Sexes."[431] These types the reader is expected to imitate in his own conduct, guided by the moral precepts with which the poet must not neglect to decorate his work.

Within the period of this study two views were taken of the moral element in poetry. With the exception of Sidney and Jonson, who knew the theories of the Italian renaissance, the English critics believed with Horace that poetry was at once pleasant and profitable, and agreed with Plutarch that poetry, if rightly used, would be of benefit in the education of youth. But there was little tendency to follow this to the conclusion of asserting that because poetry has a moral effect on the reader, it is the purpose of poetry as an art to exert this moral effect for the good of society. Most of these critics believed that the moral effect which poetry did exert came through allegory. In this respect, as has been shown, they were carrying on the traditions of the middle ages.

The opposing view derived ultimately from the classical rhetorics, and entered England through the criticism of the Italian scholars--particularly Minturno and Scaliger. Starting from the saying of Horace that poets aim to please or profit, or please and profit together, these critics borrowed from rhetoric Cicero's three-fold aim of the orator: to teach, to please, to move, and applied these three aims to the poet. Accordingly, to them the poet has the same aim as the orator--persuasion. He pleases not for the sake of giving pleasure, but for the sake of winning his readers so that he may better attain his real object of teaching morality and moving men to action in its practice. The emphasis on the example as the means of attaining this end was further derived from scholastic philosophy which, as has been shown, classed logic, rhetoric, and poetic together as instruments for attaining truth and improving the morality of the state. Furthermore, according to this scholastic view, the three arts differed only as they utilized different means to attain this end. Logic used the demonstrative syllogism and the scientific induction, rhetoric used the enthymeme or rhetorical syllogism and the example or popular induction, poetic used the example alone. According to the renaissance developments of this last view, allegory was emphasized less and less as the example was felt to be more appropriate. Thus Sidney and Jonson, the outstanding classicists in English renaissance criticism, exhibit to the highest degree the influence of the most rhetorical of Italian renaissance critics. They alone in England assert that the purpose of poetry is to move men to virtuous action.

Thus a study of rhetorical terminology in English renaissance theories of poetry throws into sharp relief the fact that all criticism of the fine art of literature in England in the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century was profoundly influenced by rhetoric. This influence was two-fold. On the one hand the less scholarly critics perpetuated the popular traditions of rhetoric which they inherited from the middle ages. These traditions of allegory and the ornate style were, as has been shown, in turn derived from post-classical rhetoric. On the other hand the more scholarly critics applied to poetry the canons of classical rhetoric which they derived in part from the classics themselves and in part from the critics of the Italian renaissance.

In one sense this has been a study of critical perversions. Although many of the critics of the English renaissance are remarkable for their wisdom and discerning judgments, their writings are far less valuable than those of Longinus and Aristotle. But Aristotle and Longinus did not allow their theories of poetry to be contaminated by rhetoric. The best modern critics have studied and understood the classical treatises on poetic and have consequently avoided the confusion between rhetoric and poetic into which many renaissance critics fell. Others have not been so fortunate. For these the object-lesson of renaissance failure should serve as a warning.

Index

1. Modern Philology, Vol. XVI, No. 8, Dec., 1918.

2. Poetics, I, 8.

3. Quomodo historia conscribenda sit, 8.

4. De institutione oratoria, X, ii, 21.

5. Poetik, Rhetorik, und Stilistik (Halle, 1886), pp. 14, 261.

6. Poetry, with Reference to Aristotle's Poetics, Ed. A.S. Cook (Boston, 1891), pp. 10-11.

7. Estetica (Milano, 1902), I, II, and appendix.

8. Enjoyment of Poetry (New York, 1916), p. 66.

9. Georges Renard, La method scientifique de l'histoire littéraire. (Paris, 1900), p. 385.

10. III, 1.

11. I, 8; and IX, 2.

12. Prickard thinks Aristotle misread in this passage. According to Prickard, Aristotle means that poetry must be in meter, but that not all meter is poetry. Aristotle's Poetics, p. 60. Most critics do not share Prickard's opinion.

13. Ibid., I, 6.

14. Ibid., IV, 2.

15. Psychology, ed. E. Wallace, III, 3, cf. also introd., p. 77, ff.

16. Poetics, I.

17. VII, 3.

18. VII, 5.

19. S.H. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, p. 123. Poetics, II, 1.

20. III, 1.

21. Ibid., IX.

22. Ibid., IX, 3-4; of. XV, 6.

23. Ibid., X, 3.

24. Ibid., XXIV, 9-10.

25. Butcher, op. cit. p. 392.

26. Poetics, XVII.

27. VI, 18.

28. Longinus, On the Sublime, trans, by A. O. Prickard (Oxford, 1906) I and XXXIII. The treatise has been variously ascribed to the first and fourth centuries. A valuable edition of the text accompanied by translation and critical apparatus, was published by W. Rhys Roberts, Cambridge University Press.

29. Ibid., VIII.

30. Ibid., X.

31. Ibid., XII.

32. Ibid., XV. This is almost exactly Aristotle's phrase in the Rhetoric.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid, X.

35. De audiendis poetis, VII, VIII.

36. III.

37. Rhetoric (J. E. C. Welldon's trans., London, 1886), I, ii.

38. Rhetoric, I, i.

39. Ibid., I, i.

40. Wilkin's ed. of Cic. De oratore, introd. p. 56.

41. Cope, Introduction to the Rhetoric of Aristotle (London, 1867), p. 149.

42. Ad Herennium, I, 2. Published in the Opera Rhetorica of Cicero, edited by W. Friedrich for Teubner (Leipzig, 1893), Vol. 1.

43. De oratore, I, 138.

44. De institutione oratoria, II, xv, 38.

45. Ibid., XI, i, 9-11. The "vir bonus dicendi peritus" is from Cato.

46. Gorgias, St. 453.

47. Loci cit.

48. I, v.

49. I, 213.

50. Op. cit., I, 64.

51. De inst. orat., II, xxi, 4.

52. Rhet., I, ix.

53. De inst. orat., III, iv, 6.

54. Ibid., X, i, 28.

55. γραθική, Rhet. III, xii.

56. Orator, 37-38.

57. Rhet., I, ix.

58. Ad Herennium, I, 2; Cicero, De inventione, I, vii. De oratore, I, 142; Quintilian, De inst. orat., III, iii, i.

59. Aristotle, Rhetoric, III, xiii-xix; Cicero, Partit. orat., 15.

60. See above, pp. 13-14.

61. Cicero, De oratore, I. 143; Quint., De inst. orat., III, ix.

62. I, 4. Cicero, also, De invent., I, xiv.

63. Opera omnia (1622), p. 1028.

64. De nuptiis, 544-560.

65. The Arte of Rhet., p. 7.

66. De inst. orat., VIII, i, I

67. De inst. orat., VIII, vi, I ff.

68. Rhetoric, III, ii.

69. Ibid., III, xi.

70. Enjoyment of Poetry, pp. 76-78. The best classical treatments of style are to be found in Arist. Rhet., III; Cic., Orat.; Quint., De inst. orat., VIII, x; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De comp. verb.; and Demetrius, De elocutione.

71. Sec. 54.

72. Commentarioum Rhetoricorum libri IV, I, i, 3, in his Opera, III. (Amsterdam, 1697).

73. VI, 1.

74. Rhet., III, 1.

75. The six elements are Plot, Character, Thought, Diction, Spectacle, and Song. Poetics, VI, 7 and 16.

76. Butcher, op. cit., pp. 339-343.

77. Poetics, VI, 16, and XIX, 1-2.

78. De inst. orat., X, i, 46-51.

79. De inventione, I, xxiii, 33.

80. Die antike kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898), p. 884, note 3.

81. See above, p. 17.

82. De optimo genere oratorum, I, 3; Orator, 69; De oratore, II, 28.

83. De inst. orat., VI, ii, 25-36.

84. Poetics, XVII, 2.

85. Arist. Rhet., III. xi; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De Lysia, 7; Quintilian, VIII, iii, 62.

86. Rhetoric, III, i.

87. Op. cit., pp. 883-884.

88. La Rue Van Hook, "Alcidamas versus Isocrates," Classical Weekly, XII (Jan. 20, 1919), p. 90. Professor Van Hook here presents the only English translation of Alcidamas, On the Sophists. Isocrates made his reply in his speech On the Antidosis.

89. Rhetoric, III, ii.

90. Ibid., III, viii.

91. Orator, 66-68.

92. De oratore, I, 70.

93. "Verba prope poetarum," ibid., I, 128.

94. "Id primum in poetis cerni licet, quibus est proxima cognatio cum oratoribus." De orat., III, 27. cf. also I, 70.

95. Xenophon, Banquet, II, 11-14.

96. Die antike kunstprosa, pp. 75-79.

97. De compositione verborum, XXV-XXVI.

98. Sénèque le rheteur, Controverses et suasoires, ed. Henri Bornecque (Paris). Introduction pp. 20 ff.

99. Ibid.

100. Op. cit. vol. II, p. 5.

101. Dialogus, 20.

102. Op. cit., Introd. p. 23.

103. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De comp. verb., XXIII.

104. Hardie, Lectures, VII, p. 281.

105. Quomodo historia conscribenda sit, Sec. 8. Trans, of Lucian by H.W. Fowler and F.G. Fowler (Oxford, 4 vols., 1905).

106. Id quoque vitandum, in quo magna pars errat, ne in oratione poetas et historicos, in illis operibus oratores aut declamatores imitandos putemus. De inst. orat, X, ii, 21.

107. Virgilius orator an poeta? quoted by Karl Vossler, Poetische Theorien in der italienischen Frührenaissance. (Berlin, 1900) p. 42, note 2.

108. Etymologiae, II.

109. P. Abelson, The Seven Liberal Arts (New York, 1906), p. 60, ff.

110. Poetria magistri Johannis anglici de arte prosayca metrica et rithmica, ed. by G. Mari, Romanische Forschungen (1902), XIII, p. 883 ff.

111. Ibid., p. 894.

112. Ibid., p. 897.

113. Cf. G. L. Hendrickson, "The Origin and Meaning of the Ancient Characters of Style," Am. Jour. of Phil. (1905), xxvi, p. 249.

114. Cf. the auctor ad Her., I, 4, who gives them as exordium, narratio, divisio, confirmatio, confutatio, conclusio.

115. Ibid., p. 918.

116. III, 3.

117. "Rhetoricâ, kleit unser rede mit varwe schône." Ed. by H. Rückert, Bibl. der Deutsch. Lit., Vol. 30, 1. 8924.

118. Caius Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius (430-488) can be consulted in a modern ed. by Paulus Mohr (Leipzig, 1895).

119. Doctrina dell' ornato parlare." Woodward, Educ. in the Ren. p. 75.

120. Chron. Troy (1412-20), Prol. 57.

121. I am indebted to my friend Dr. Mark Van Doren for the transcript which I am here publishing.

122. Mor. Fab. Prol. 3. (c. 1580).

123. Poems, LXV, 10 (1500-20).

124. Clerk's Prolog. 32.

125. Life of our Lady (1409-1411), (Caxton) lvii b.

126. Trans, of Boethius (1410), quoted by Skeat, Chaucer, II, xvii.

127. Kingis Q. (1423), CXCVII.

128. Test. Papyngo (1530), II.

129. Seyntys (1447), Roxb. 41.

130. Serp. Devision, c. iii b.

131. Reprinted from the ed. of 1555 for the Percy Society (London, 1845), p. 2.

132. Ibid., p. 55.

133. Ibid., p. 28.

134. See p. 27.

135. Ibid., p. 37.

136. Ibid., p. 46.

137. "Proximum grammatice docet, quae emendate & aperte loquendi vim tradit: Proximum rhetorice, quae ornatum orationis cultum que & omnes capiendarum aurium illecebras invenit. Quod reliquum igitur est videbitur sibi dialectice vendicare, probabliter dicere de qualibet re, quae deducitur in orationem." De inventione dialectica (Paris, 1535), II, 2. cf. also II, 3.

138. Ibid., I, 1.

139. Rule of Reason (1551), p. 5. Fraunce, Lawiers Logike, takes the same view.

140. Dialecticae libri duo, A. Talaei praelectionibus illustrati (Paris, 1560), I, 2.

141. Rule of Reason, p. 3.

142. Wilkins introd. to Cic. De orat., p. 57.

143. De inst. orat., VI., v, 1-2.

144. Printed in London by John Day, without a date. The dedication is dated Dec. 13, 1550. The title page says it was "written fyrst in Latin--by Erasmus."

145. Ascribed to Dudley Tenner by Foster Watson, The English Grammar Schools (Cambridge, 1908), p. 89.

146. Chapter IX.

147. Thomas Heywood, Apology for Actors (London, 1612), in Pub. Shak. Soc., Vol. III, p. 29.

148. Book I, ch. 1.

149. "Rhetorica est ars ornate dicendi." Rhetoricae libri duo quorum prior de tropis & figuris, posterior de voce & gestu praecepit: in usum scholarum postremo recogniti. (London, 1629)

150. The Art of Rhetorick concisely and completely handled, exemplified out of Holy Writ, etc. (London, 1634)

151. Dekker and Middleton, The Roaring Girl, III, 3.

152. Dekker, III, 1.

153. Spingarn, Critical Essays of the Seventeenth Century, I, 2.

154. χειραγωγια Manductio ad Artem Rhetoricam ante paucos annos in privatum scholarium usum concinnata (London, 1621). "Rhetorica est ars recte dicendi, etc."

155. Norden, op. cit., pp. 699-703.

156. A.C. Clark, Ciceronianism, in Eng. Lit. and the Classics, ed. Gordon (Oxford, 1912), p. 128.

157. Woodward, Educ. in the Ren., p. 45.

158. Erasmus, Dialogus, cui titulus ciceronianus, sive, de optimo dicendi genere, in Opera omnia (Lugduni Batavorum, 1703), I. It was composed in 1528.

159. Arte of Rhet., p. 109.

160. I, 4. Wilson follows the analysis on p. 7.

161. I, x, 17.

162. An Apology for Actors, p. 29.

163. This count is based on the Cicero MSS. listed by P. Deschamps, Essai bibliographique sur M. T. Ciceron (Paris. 1863). Appendix.

164. H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895), I, 249.

165. J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, p. 590.

166. Sandys, p. 624 seq.

167. Deschamps, op. cit., pp. 59-63.

168. Arber reprint, p. 124.

169. M. Schwab, Bibliographie d'Aristote (Paris, 1896).

170. Rashdall, II, 457.

171. Fierville, C. M. F. Quintiliani de institutione oratorio, liber primus (Paris, 1890). Introduction, xiv-xxxii. M. Fierville prints for the first time the complete texts of these abridgments in an appendix.

172. Arber, p. 95.

173. The pseudo-Demetrius, author of the De elecutione.

174. P. 316.

175. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 541-2.

176. M. Schwab, op. cit.

177. Poetische Theorien in der italienischen Frührenaissance (Berlin, 1900), p. 88.

178. Defense, in Smith, I, 196-197.

179. Vossius, De artis poeticae natura, II, 3-4.

180. Poetics, I, 2.

181. Poetica, 23, 190.

182. De artis poeticae natura, II, 4.

183. Euphues, edited by M. W. Croll and H. Clemens (New York), Introd. iv.

184. Preface to Maggi's Aristotle (1550), p. 2.

185. Prolog. ibid., p. 15.

186. Spingarn, p. 312.

187. Jacob Pontanus, S. J., Poeticarum institutionum libri tres (Ingolstadi, 1594), p. 36.

188. Ibid, p. 81.

189. "Tres autem sunt virtutes narrationis, brevitas, perspicuitas, probabilitas. Secundam & tertiam diligentissime consectabitur Epicus, earumque rationem a Rhetoricae magistris percepiet," p. 72. These three virtues of a "narratio" are based on the analysis of the Rhetorica ad Alexandrum.

190. Arist., Rhet., III. 16.

191. Op. cit,, p. 26.

192. Spingarn, p. 313.

193. Lit. Crit., p. 255.

194. Ibid., p. 262.

195. Arber, pp. 138-141.

196. Spingarn, pp. 174, 256.

197. Smith, I, 48.

198. Smith, I, 59.

199. Ibid., p. 60.

200. I, 2.

201. II, 12.

202. IV, 63.

203. Topics, 83.

204. VI, ii, 8 seq. Quintilian also uses the Greek terms.

205. X, i, 46-131.

206. Op. cit., pp. 275-398.

207. II, 154 seq.

208. P. 187.

209. G.S. Gordon, "Theophrastus" in Eng. Lit. and the Classics, p. 49-86.

210. Smith, I, 128

211. Ibid., 130-131.

212. Cf. Spingarn, pp. 298-304, for a good account of reformed versifying in England.

213. Smith, I, 137.

214. John Northbrooke anticipated Gosson by two years in his attack on the stage, but did not include poets in his title.

215. Spingam, pp. 256-258.

216. Smith, I, 158.

217. Ibid., I, 172.

218. Ibid., I, 185.

219. Ibid., I, 158-159.

220. Ibid., I, 160.

221. I, 183.

222. I, 201.

223. Arist. Rhet., III, 2; Quint. VIII, iii. 62; Scaliger, iii, 25. Cf. ante p. 33.

224. De aug. II, 13.

225. See pp. 18, 19.

226. I, 203.

227. I, 202.

228. Smith, I, 227-228.

229. I, 256.

230. I, 231.

231. I, 247-248.

232. I, i.

233. I, ii.

234. I, viii.

235. I, iv.

236. La Rue Van Hook, "Greek Rhetorical Terminology in Puttenham's The Arte of English Poesie." Trans. of the Am. Phil. Ass. (1914) XLV, 111. Puttenham was also familiar with the ad Herennium and with Cicero.

237. (Philadelphia, 1891), p. 59.

238. III, i.

239. III, xix, p. 206 Arber reprint; of. also p. 230, on the figure Merismus or the Distributor, and the remainder of the chapter.

240. Smith, II, 249, 282.

241. Ibid, II, 274.

242. Preface to Homer, in Spingarn, Critical Essays of the Seventeenth Century, I, 81.

243. Spingarn, I, 5.

244. Literary Criticism in the Seventeenth Century, Introduction, I, xiii.

245. Timber, Sec. 128. Cf. Pastime of Pleasure, VIII, 29.

246. Spingarn, I, 211.

247. Timber, Sec. 109.

248. Timber, Sees. 132-133.

249. Spingarn, I, 214.

250. Ibid., p. 210, 213.

251. Vossler, op. cit., p. 48.

252. Spingarn, I, 107.

253. Ibid., I, 142.

254. Ibid., I, 182.

255. Ibid., I, 188, 185.

256. Spingarn, I, 206.

257. Pseudo-Demetrius, De elocutione.

258. The De sublimitate.

259. De sublimitate, VIII.

260. Spingarn, I, 206.

261. Reason of Church Government (1641), in Spingarn, I, 194.

262. Introd. to Eliz. Crit. Essays, I, lxx.

263. Pp. 23-25.

264. VI, 2.

265. Poetica est facultas videndi quodcunque accommodatum est ad imitationem cuiusque actionis, affectionis, moris, suavi sermone, ad vitam corrigendam & ad bene beateque vivendum comparata. Praefatio to Maggi's ed. of the Poetics (1550), p. 9.

266. Spingarn, p. 35.

267. La poetica è una facoltà, la quale insegna in quai modi si debba imitare qualunque azione, affetto e costume, con numero, sermone ed armonia; mescolatamente a di per sè, per remuovere gli uomini dai vizi e accendergli alle virtù, affine che conseguano la perfezione e beatitudine loro. Lezione della poetica (1590) in Opere (Trieste, 1859), II, 687.

268. Verses 1008-1010.

269. Verse 1055.

270. The Women at the Feast of Bacchus, quoted by Emile Egger, L'Histoire de la Critique chez les Grecs (Paris, 1886), p. 74.

271. Protagoras, 325-326, Jowett's translation.

272. Republic, 596-598.

273. Ibid., 605-606.

274. Ibid., 607

275. Laws, 663.

276. Poetics, IV, 2.

277. Ibid., VI, 15.

278. Ibid., VII.

279. Ibid., IX, 7.

280. Ibid., XIII. Cf. also XXVI.

281. Ibid., XXIV.

282. Ibid., XXVI.

283. Politics, V, v.

284. Poetics, VI. (Butcher). Cf. Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of Fine Art, Chapter VI, for a full discussion of katharsis.

285. Politics, V, vii.

286. Poetics, XIII.

287. Panegyric, § 159.

288. Symposium, III, 5.

289. Geography, I, ii, 3. Trans, by H. C. Hamilton (Bohn ed, London, 1854), 1, 24-25.

290. De audiendis poetis, trans, by F.M. Padelford under the title Essays on the Study and Use of Poetry (New York, 1902), I. Cf. also Julian, Epistle 42.

291. Ibid.

292. Ibid. XIV. Cf. Harrington in Smith's Eliz. Crit. Essays, II, 197-198.

293. Ibid. XII. Cf. Chemnicensis, Canons, LII, in Smith, I, 421.

294. Ibid., IV. Cf. Aristotle, Rhetoric, II, xx.

295. Ibid., III.

296. Aut prodesse volunt, aut delectare poetae Aut simul et jucunda et idonea dicere vitae * * * * * Centuriae seniorum agitant expertia frugis; Celsi praetereunt austera poemata Rhamnes: Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, Lectorem delectando, periterque monendo. Hic meret aera liber Sosiis; hic et mare transit, Et longum noto scriptori prorogat aevum.

297. Epistles, II, i, 11. 126 ff. Conington's trans.

298. Metamorphoses, X, 2.

299. De rerum natura, I, 936-950.

300. Phaedrus. See also Republic, II.

301. How to Study Poetry, IV.

302. Cf. Cicero, De nat. deor. i, 15-38 ff., and Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, 1888, Ch. III.

303. A. Schlemm, De fontibus Plutarchi commentationum De aud. poet. (Göttingen, 1893), pp. 32-36.

304. "Iam cum confluxerunt plures continuae tralationes, alia plane fit oratio; itaque genus hoc Graeci appellant ἀλληγορίαν nomine recte genere melius ille qui ista omnia tralationes vocat." Orator, 94. Cf. Ad. Att. ii, 20, 3.

305. Quintilian, VIII, vi, 44. Isidore, Etym. I, xxxvii, 22.

306. De doctrina christiana (397), III, 29, 40.

307. Confessions (Watts's trans.), III. vi., Lionardo Bruni, De studiis et literis (1405), uses the same argument to defend poetry.

308. Terence, Eun. 585-589, shows a young man justifying his vices on this ground.

309. Poetics, IX.

310. Literary Criticism, p. 18.

311. Rhet. II, xxi.

312. Rhetoric, II, xx. (Weldon's translation).

313. De inst. orat. V, xi, 6, 19.

314. Edited from the edition of 1560 by G.H. Mair (Oxford, 1909), p. 198.

315. Ibid., p. 3.

316. "Docere debitum est, delectare honorarium, permovere necessarium." De optimo genere oratorum, I, 3. He gives the same threefold aims as "ut probet, ut delectet, ut flectet," in the Orator, 69; and in the De oratore, II, 121.

317. Vide pp. 136-137.

318. Cf. ante, I, iv.

319. Controv. II, 2 (10). Bornecque ed., I, 145-148.

320. Quoted by Padelford, p. 36.

321. Orat. xi, p. 308.

322. Padelford, op. cit. pp. 39-43.

323. Karl Vossler, Poetische Theorien in der italienischen Frührenaissance (Berlin, 1900), pp. 5, 18, 45.

324. Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae, Book I, prose 1. Boethius lived 480-524. Cf. Skeat, Chaucer, II, introd. xiv ff. for references to the surprising number of translations in most European languages throughout the Middle Ages. The most famous are, perhaps, those of Ælfred, Notker, and Chaucer.

325. Ibid, Book V, prose v.

326. "Quidam autem poetae Theologici dicti sunt, quoniam de diis carmina faciebant. Officium autem poetae in eo est ut ea, quae vere gesta sunt, in alias species obliquis figurationibus cum decore aliquo conversa transducant." Etym. VIII, vii, 9-10.

327. "Fabulas poetae quasdam delectandi causa finxerunt, quasdam ad naturam rerum, nonnullas ad mores hominum interpretati sunt." Etym. I, xl, 3.

328. "Una verita ascosa sotto bella menzogna." II, 1.

329. Epistle, X, 11, 160-1. Quoted by Wicksteed, Temple Classics, pp. 66-67.

330. "Vesta di figura o di colore rettorico." La Vita Nuova, XXV.

331. See above, pp. 45-47.

332. "Per nimpham fingitur caro, per iuvenem coruptorem mundus vel dyabolus, per proprium amicum ratio." Poetria magistri Johannis anglici de arte prosayca metrica et rithmica. Ed. by G. Mari, Romanische Forschungen (1902) XIII, 894.

333. "Est furor Eacides ire sathanas," Ibid, p. 913.

334. See above, pp. 51-55.

335. Pastime of Pleasure, p. 29.

336. Ibid., p. 38.

337. Ibid., p. 54; see further above, p. 54.

338. Cf. ante, pp. 97-99.

339. Lit. Crit., p. 47-59.

340. Ibid., p. 58.

341. I anal. 1a.

342. Lit. Crit., p. 25.

343. André Schimberg, L'education morale dans les collèges de la compagnie de Jésus en France (Paris, 1913). p. 138.

344. Opus de divisione, ordine, ac utilitate omnium scientiarum, in poeticen apologeticum. Autore fratre Hieronymo Savonarola (Venetiis, 1542), IV, pp. 36-55. Savonarola died in 1498.

345. Cartier, "L'Esthetique de Savonarola," in Didron's Annales Archoelogiques (1847). vii, 255 ff.

346. "Rhetorica, Poeticaque contra: quod non adeo vere ac proprie Logicae appellantur, neque, syllogismo fere, sed exemplo atque enthymemate, rationibus quasi popularibus utuntur...." Poetic, furthermore, differs from rhetoric, "neque usurpat enthymema fere, sed exemplum." Vincentius Madius et Bartholomaeus Lombardus. In Aristotelis Librum de poetica communes explanationes (Venetiis, 1550), pp. 8-9.

347. "Onde come il loico usa per suo mezzo il più nobile strumento, ciò è la dimostrazione o vero il sillogismo dimonstrativo; cosi usa il dialettico il sillogismo topico; il sofista il sofistico, ciò è apparente ed ingannevole: il retore l'entimema, e il poeta l'esempio, il quale è il meno degno di tutti gli altri. É adunque il subbietto della poetica il favellare finto e favoloso, ed il suo mezzo o strumento l'esempio." Delia Poetica in Generale, Lezione Una I, 2. Opere (Trieste, 1850), II, 684. In his paraphrase of this passage and in his comments, Spingarn (Lit. Crit. pp. 25-26) misunderstands both his author and his rhetoric when he says, "The subject of poetry is fiction, or invention, arrived at by means of that form of the syllogism known as the example. Here the enthymeme or example, which Aristotle has made the instrument of rhetoric, becomes the instrument of poetry."

348. Rhet. I, ii.

349. "Nimirum arbitrantur, quemadmodum Rhetorice ab Aristotele ipso appellatur particula Dialecticae; idque propterea, quod doceat rationem, qua enthymema applicetur ad materiam civilem: ita & Poeticen esse Logices partem, quia aperit exempli usum in materia ficta ... at Rhetorice, & Poetice, non solum docere student, sed etiam delectare; nec cognitionem tantum spectant, sed & actionem. Quamquam vero hoc commune habet cum Rhetorica, quod utraque sit famula Politicae." Gerardi Joannis Vossii, De artis poeticae, natura, ac constitutions liber, cap VII, in Opera (Amsterdam, 1697), III.

350. "Inductio delectat, et est vulgo apta, propter similitudines et exempla. Hanc argumentationem frequentant Rhetores et Poetae, praesertim Ovidius; quia venuste ac perspicue explicat argumenta." I, ii.

351. Vide, pp. 103-104.

352. Vide, pp. 119-120.

353. Poetica (Vinegia, 1536), p. 25. Spingarn, p. 48.

354. "Sic dicere versibus, ut doccat, ut delectet, ut moveat." De poeta, p. 102.

355. Rhetoric, I, ii.

356. XII, i, 1.

357. De poeta, p. 79. Vossius echoes the same idea from the same rhetorical source.

358. "Sed & docendi, & movendi, & delectandi." Poetice (1561), III, xcvii.

359. Ibid., I, i.

360. Arte of Rhet. p. 176.

361. These two names were frequently connected in the renaissance.

362. Ibid, p. 195.

363. Arber Reprint (London, 1870), p. 151.

364. Ibid., pp. 142-143.

365. Ibid., p. 80.

366. Vide, p. 132.

367. Vide, pp. 77-78.

368. Smith, Eliz. Crit. Essays, I, 48.

369. Croll, Introd. to ed. of Euphues (New York, 1916), p. vii.

370. Smith, I, 60.

371. School of Abuse (Pub. of the Shak. Soc., 1841), Vol, 2, p. 15.

372. Ibid., pp. 20, 25, 29.

373. Smith, I, 65.

374. Smith, I, 73.

375. Smith, I, 76.

376. Smith, I, 83.

377. Vide, pp. 86-87.

378. Lit. Crit. in the Ren. 2d ed., pp. 269-274.

379. Smith, I, 158-160.

380. Ibid., 160.

381. Ibid., I, 159.

382. Ibid., I, 171.

383. Ibid., p. 172.

384. Cf. above, p. 138.

385. De inst. orat., V, xi, 19.

386. Arte of Rhet., p. 198.

387. Ibid., I, 157.

388. Smith, I, 169.

389. Rhetoric, II, xx. 390. Smith, I, 173.

391. Cf. St. Augustine, Confessions, III, vi.

392. Smith, I, 187. Cf. Arist. Rhet. I, i, and Quint. De inst. orat. II, xvi, who defend rhetoric on the same ground. Sidney's "with a sword thou maist kill thy Father, and with a sword thou maist defende thy Prince and Country" is in Quintilian.

393. See also p. 38.

394. Smith, II, 208.

395. Smith, II, 201.

396. Ibid.

397. De audiendis poetis, XIV. Plutarch believed that poetry gained this end by enunciating moral and philosophical sententiae, not by allegory, which Plutarch made sport of.

398. See pp. 87-89.

399. Smith, I, 250-252.

400. Smith, I, 232.

401. Smith, I, 238-239.

402. Smith, I, 235-236.

403. Smith, I, 248-249.

404. Vide, pp. 89-92.

405. Smith, II, 25.

406. Smith, II, 115-116.

407. Smith, II, 160.

408. Smith, II, 32-40.

409. Smith, II, 41-42.

410. Ibid.

411. Woodward, Educ. in the Ren. p. 135.

412. Krapp, Rise of Eng. Lit. Prose (New York, 1915), pp. 408-409.

413. Vide, pp. 91-92.

414. Spingarn, Crit. Essays of the 17th Century, I, 98, 99.

415. Springarn, I, 6.

416. Spingarn, I, 6-8.

417. The author's prolog to the first book.

418. Spingarn, I, 170.

419. Spingarn, I, 50; for Jonson see also pp. 93-96.

420. Spingarn, I, 29.

421. Ibid., 51-52.

422. Ibid., p. 55. Cf. Cicero, ante p. 37.

423. Ded. to Volpone, Spingarn, I. 15.

424. Ibid.

425. Spingarn, I, 28-29.

426. Ded to Volpone, Spingarn, I, 12.

427. Smith, II, 306.

428. Spingarn, I, 67.

429. Spingarn, I, 117-120.

430. A.H. Tieje, Theory of Characterization in Prose Fiction Prior to 1740 (Minneapolis, 1916), p. 14.

431. Spingarn, I, 186-187.