Sailing

Having in the last chapter described the various instruments which enable a mariner to direct his course, we will now give some further explanations of the method of employing the chart and compass.

Cross Bearings.—When a vessel is in sight of land, her position can be calculated with exactness by several methods.

First. By cross bearings of two known objects. If two well-known landmarks are visible on shore, we observe how each of them bears by our compass. We then refer to the chart, lay down these bearings with the parallel rule, and the point where the lines cut will represent the vessel’s position.

For instance (see (Fig. 47), the beacon A is found to be N.W. of us, the beacon B N.E. of us. We lay our parallel rule on the magnetic compass design on the chart so that its edge passes through N.W. and also through the centre of the compass. We then slide the rule to the beacon A on the chart—preserving the direction—and draw with a pencil the line from A indicated by the edge of the rule.

In the same way we carry the direction N.E. from the compass design to the beacon B, and draw the line from B indicated by the rule. The point C where these lines cut represents the position of the vessel, and the distance between C and the beacons or the shore can be measured with the dividers by referring to the graduated meridian on the side of the chart as a scale.

While a vessel is sailing along the shore her distance from it can be calculated as follows: We select any prominent point on the shore, as the tree A in (Fig. 48. We take its bearing, which we find to be N.W. From A we draw the line A B in a N.W. magnetic direction by the compass design. Our vessel’s course is N. by W. From any point B on the line A B we draw a line B C in a N. by W. direction. When we have sailed a certain distance, say five miles by the log, we take another bearing of the tree and find it is now N.E. of us. From A we draw a line corresponding to this last bearing, which cuts the line C B at C. Taking C B a distance of five miles as our scale, we can measure the distance between the vessel’s position C and the tree A. A chart is not needed for the above method of calculating one’s distance. A sheet of paper with a compass design sketched on it is all that is necessary.

The following is a very easy method of calculating the distance of an object that one is passing, and requires no chart or diagram. Take a bearing of the object, and observe the angle this bearing makes with the vessel’s course; also note the time. As the vessel sails on, this angle will increase until at last it is doubled. The vessel’s distance from the object will then equal the distance she has travelled since the first bearings were taken. (Fig. 49 will make this method clear. A is the object on shore, C and B the position of the vessel when the bearings were taken. A C D is the angle formed by the course E D and the first bearings. When this angle is doubled, as at A B D, the line B C will equal the line A B.

If one is sailing parallel to a coast, the following is a rapid method of ascertaining one’s distance from the shore. Note the time when an object on shore is exactly at right angles to the vessel’s course. When one has brought the object at an angle of 45° to the vessel’s course—looking aft—calculate the distance travelled since the time was noted. The distance from the shore will be the same. Thus, in (Fig. 50, the vessel’s direction when she is at B is at right angles to the bearings of A the object on shore. When the vessel has arrived at C, the angle A C B has a value of 45°. It follows that C D, the distance from the shore, equals C B, the distance travelled.

An azimuth compass is one specially adapted for taking bearings. Its card is more carefully divided than that of the steering compass, and it is fitted with sight vanes.

However, bearings sufficiently accurate for practical purposes can be taken with the ordinary compass. Hold a piece of string across the centre of the compass, and, looking along it, direct it towards the object whose bearing is required, as if taking an aim with a gun. The direction of the string will then indicate the bearing on the compass card beneath.

In taking cross bearings endeavour to obtain a difference between them of as near 90° as possible; for if the difference be small, as, for example, 10°, or large, as 150°, a small error in the bearing will cause a great error in the calculation of the vessel’s position.

If, when directing one’s course out of sight of land, as, for instance, from Yarmouth to the mouth of the Elbe, head winds are met with, and it becomes necessary to tack, it is an advantage as a general rule to sail on that tack on which the vessel looks up best for her port, and not to go about until she has brought herself to a position on which the other tack is the most favourable, and so on. The ship thus constantly keeps her port in the wind’s eye, and any change in the direction of the wind can be taken advantage of. But if a vessel stands on, till the tack be a losing one in order that she may fetch her destination on the next tack, a change in the wind may put her dead to leeward of her port and she will have lost ground by the ill-judged tactics.

When tacking out of sight of land, the direction and length of each successive board can be pricked out on the chart by using the dividers and parallel rule in the manner already described, and the position of the vessel at any time will thus be known.

Before land is lost sight of, what is termed a departure is taken from the last well-known object on the shore. Its bearing is taken by compass, its distance by log is estimated, and the time is noted. A departure can also be taken by cross bearings.

It is from the departure that the voyage is reckoned out.

In determining the course and position of a vessel at sea, allowance must be made for leeway and for the set of the tide. The leeway is greater when the sea is rough and when the sails are reefed. The amount of leeway can be roughly estimated by looking over a vessel’s stern at her wake, which will not be in the same line as her keel, but at an angle to it.

Having measured this angle, apply it to the left when the vessel is on the starboard tack, to the right when she is on the port tack.

If the strength and direction of a current are known, its effect upon the vessel’s course and distance made must be allowed for.

If the set of the current is in the same direction as the ship’s direction—either with her or opposed to her—her course is unaffected, but her rate of motion over the ground is increased or lessened by as many knots an hour as the current is flowing. The rate of current must therefore be added to or deducted from the distance logged. The log, of course, only indicates the vessel’s speed through the water, and does not register the current.

If the current is across a vessel’s direction, it will influence both her course and rate of sailing.

In order to find the course that should be steered so as to make good a required course in a cross current we proceed as follows. In either of the two Figs. 51 and 52, let A be the position of the vessel, B the port we desire to make, and let the arrow represent the direction of the current. With the dividers take from the scale at the side of the chart the number of miles the current runs per hour, and lay down this distance A C in the direction of the arrow. Then take from the scale the number of miles the vessel is going per hour, and with this distance as radius, and C as the centre, describe a circle.

The line joining C and D—the point where the circle and the line A B cut—represents the direction in which the vessel must be steered so as to keep on the line A B. Draw A E parallel and equal to C D. Then if the vessel be steered from A towards E, and travel the distance A E through the water she will in reality have made the distance A D in the direction of her port. In the two figures the alteration of the vessel’s course is about the same, but as the current is contrary in (Fig. 51, A D, the distance made, is much less than A E, the distance sailed, whereas in (Fig. 52 the current is favourable and therefore the distance made is greater than the distance sailed.

In current sailing, every advantage must be taken of the tide, and it is often possible to fetch a port dead to windward on one tack by what is termed underbowing the tide.

For instance, if we are bound for a port due north of us, and the wind is also due north, while we have a current running to the eastward, we can, by putting our vessel on the tack that directs her to the westward of north, that is, in this case the starboard tack, bring the tide on the lee bow so that the result of our north-west course and the easterly current is that our vessel travels due north.

Hence it is very necessary, while tacking across the sea, to know exactly when the tide will turn, so that we can put the vessel about to the best advantage.

If we are crossing a broad stretch of water such as the North Sea, with the wind free, and are likely to be in more than one tide, we can usually with advantage steer a course straight for our port, without paying much attention to the currents, as the effects of the ebb and flood will cancel each other, and we will be able to make a good land-fall.

The rise, rate, and direction of the tide at springs and neaps are generally given on the chart. If the hour of high water for the particular day and place are known, the speed of the current and the height above low water can be roughly calculated from the following data. Unless the conformation of the coast produces a variation from the general rule, the tide rises from low to high water in six hours and a quarter and falls from high to low water in the same time. The rise and fall are not uniform. During the first and last hours of flood the rise is smallest. During the second hour it greatly increases. At the fourth hour the tide has reached its maximum rate, and from then the rate of rising diminishes in the same proportion until high water. The same, rule applies to the ebb tide.

Fig. 53 represents the range of the tide in the open sea, which we have divided into sixteen equal parts. It has been found that the tide will rise one division in the first hour, three in the second hour, four in the third hour, four in the fourth hour, three in the fifth hour, and one in the last sixth hour and a quarter.

We have already explained that the time of high water at any particular spot at the full and change of the moon is indicated on the chart—thus, for instance, H.W. at F. and C. 6 h. 10 m., which signifies high water at full and change of the moon at six hours ten minutes. If we have no tide tables at hand, we can roughly calculate the time of high water for the day by adding forty-eight minutes for every day that has passed since the last full or new moon to the time at full and change given on the chart.

But a more accurate method is to refer to the Admiralty tide tables, or, what will answer the purpose equally well, to Pearson’s Nautical Almanac, a little book which we strongly recommend to the yachtsman. Here he will find daily tide tables, morning and afternoon, for London and other principal English ports, together with the height of the rise in feet.

Besides these, there is an extensive lists of ports and positions on the coast of England and Europe with their Tidal Constants. The constant for a given place is the number of hours and minutes that are to be added to or subtracted from the time of high water at the standard port or port of reference in order to obtain the time of high water at the given place.

For instance, supposing London to be the standard port, as it is in Pearson’s Almanac, and we require to know the hour of high water at Portland Breakwater on a given day. We first refer to the table of constants, and find + 5 h. 3 m. to be the constant of Portland Breakwater. We then turn to the London tide table, and find the time of high water for the day—morning or afternoon, as the case may be. We add five hours and three minutes to this, and the result will be the required time. Had the sign before the constant been-instead of + we should have subtracted and not added.

If we require the high water at a port where the tidal constant is not given in the tables, but where high water at full and change is given on the chart, find the high water at full and change of some port—London, for example, whose constant is in the tables. Subtract the lesser of these two times from the greater, the remainder will be the constant of our port—additive if the full and change at the port be greater than that of London, subtractive if it be less.

CHAPTER XIV.

WEATHER WISDOM.

In following the rules which we shall now lay down, the amateur will sometimes find that his forecast of storm will prove a false alarm and will keep him in port idle while he might have been at sea; but on the other hand—and what is far more important—a forecast of fair weather is very rarely wrong; a really dangerous wind is scarcely ever known to spring up without having given a due warning of its approach.

If about to sail from any British port—for instance, across the Channel—in a small yacht, it is useful to remember that one can telegraph to the Meteorological Office, London, for a weather forecast for that particular voyage. The reply—the charge for which is one shilling—will be returned by telegraph without delay.

Such a forecast is more to be relied on than the opinion of all the weather-wise old sailors on the coast.

The weather can be foretold with considerable accuracy by observing the appearance of many natural phenomena, the clouds, the water, the sun and moon, and also by the movements of fish and fowl; but the changes of the barometer are far more to be depended on than the above as indications of coming weather.

Every small yacht should be provided with an aneroid barometer, which is more sensitive and indicates change more quickly than the mercurial barometer, also with a thermometer, and, if the yachtsman wishes to have a complete meteorological outfit, with a hygrometer or wet bulb thermometer. These three instruments will enable him to measure the weight, the temperature, and the degree of moistness of the atmosphere. The last of the instruments mentioned is not often found on a small yacht, and indeed the aneroid and thermometer suffice for ordinary purposes of weather-forecast.

It must be remembered, while foretelling the weather, that the barometer is affected—

Firstly, by the direction of the wind. The greatest rise being with the north-east wind, the lowest fall with the south-west wind.

Secondly, by moisture, an increase of which will cause a fall.

Thirdly, by the force of the wind. If a wind freshens, the moisture and direction of the wind remaining the same, the glass will fall.

These three causes do not often act in accord; one is generally affecting the glass in a way opposite to the other two. It is for this reason that an observation of the barometer alone will often mislead us. It must be read in conjunction with the thermometer and also with the hygrometer, in order to determine the true cause of the rise or fall of the mercury.

Admiral Fitzroy’s two well-known rules are—

The Barometer Rises for northerly wind (including from N.W. by the N. to E.), for dry or less wet weather, for less wind, or for more than one of these changes; except on a few occasions, when rain (or snow) comes from the N. with strong wind.

The Barometer Falls for south wind (including from S.E. by the S. to W.), for wet weather, for stronger wind, or for more than one of these changes; except on a few occasions, when moderate wind with rain (or snow) comes from the northward.

The following rules are selected from the official computation, which is very comprehensive and should be studied by every yachtsman. Admiral Fitzroy’s book should be on every yacht’s library shelf.

If the barometer has been at its ordinary height—about thirty inches at sea-level—and is steady or rising, while the thermometer falls, and dampness lessens, N.W., N., or N.E., or less wind may be expected.

If the barometer is falling, the thermometer rising, and the dampness increasing, wind and rain, or snow may be expected from S.E., S., or S.W.

The most dangerous shifts of wind and the heaviest gales from N. happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point.

A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather; a slow rise, or steadiness with dryness shows fair weather.

The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from S.E., S., or S.W.; the greatest elevations with winds from N.W., N., or N.E.

Sudden falls of the barometer with west wind are sometimes followed by violent storms from N.W. and N.

If a gale sets in from the E. or S.E., and the wind veers by the S., the barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes S.W., when a comparative lull may occur, after which the gale will be renewed, and the shifting of the wind towards the N.W. will be indicated by a fall of the thermometer as well as a rise of barometer.

If a change of weather is long foretold by the barometer, the longer the presaged weather will last, and vice versa. The sailor expresses this in the rhyme—

“Long foretold, long last;
Short warning—soon past.”

Many more rules have been laid down by the meteorological observers, for which we have no space here; but we will now give a few brief rules on the forecast of weather by the observation of natural phenomena, which are useful by themselves, but still more so when confirming the forecast we have made from the instruments.

A halo round the moon, especially if it appear distant and yet very distinct, indicates a gale of wind, and probably rain.

When high lands are shrouded in mists, south-west gales and rain may be expected.

If distant objects are very clear and raised by reflection, rain (possibly wind also) is near.

“Wind dogs,” which are like broken portions of a rainbow seen to windward in the morning, are very certain signs of a gale.

“Mare’s tails,” which are ragged streaks of cloud, having little motion, foretell gales from the direction they radiate from.

In fine weather the wind generally follows the sun, that is, it blows from the east in the morning and from the west in the evening.

If the wind blows from west in the morning, and “backs” against the sun, till it is east in the evening, bad weather will follow.

A red sunset presages fine weather.

A red sunrise presages bad weather.

A bright yellow sky at sunset is a sign of wind; a pale yellow, of wet.

A gloomy dark blue sky is a sign of wind, while a light blue sky indicates fine weather.

The sun’s setting or rising behind a bank of clouds indicates rough weather.

A phosphorescent sea is a very certain sign of a continuance of fine weather.

The presence of vast quantities of jelly-fish presages fine weather.

Sea-birds fly far out to sea in fine weather; but if they fly inland bad weather may be expected.

When porpoises come into shallow water and ascend the rivers, stormy weather is near.

In conclusion, we will remind the yachtsman that the Meteorological Office issues a daily forecast of the weather for different portions of the British Isles. This forecast is now published in nearly all the leading morning papers, and should always be studied, if possible, before one starts across a broad sea in a little yacht; for it warns us of the “Yankee gale” that is on its way across the Atlantic, and whose approach has been announced by cable long before the barometer or appearance of the sky has given us any sign.

CHAPTER XV.

YACHT RACING.

Until within the last two years the Yacht Racing Association rule for measuring a yacht’s tonnage was as follows: “Add the yacht’s greatest breadth to her length along the load-line; multiply the sum thus obtained by itself, and by the breadth; then divide the product by 1730; and the quotient shall be the tonnage in tons and hundredths of a ton.”

Thus the length and beam were the only factors to be taken into consideration while calculating a yacht’s tonnage. The displacement, draught, and sail area counted for nothing. The natural result followed. As beam was discouraged, it became apparent that the fastest boat for her tonnage, according to this artificial rule, was a long narrow craft with great draught, large sail area, and a lead mine on her keel; consequently uncomfortable in a sea way, and affording, for her size, very cramped accommodation to her passengers; in short, a cup-winning machine unfit for anything but racing.

But now, at last, all this has been changed. The old Y.R.A. rule has been done away with, and a system of measurement on entirely new principles has been introduced which does not tax a vessel’s beam, and the sole factors in the calculation for which are length and sail area.

This revolution in yacht rating has taken place so recently that its results, as regards the type of vessels that will be constructed with a view to meeting the new conditions, have not yet had time to declare themselves; but it is claimed by many sanguine people that under these rules the old-fashioned wholesome beamy vessel will have its day again, that the “plank set up on edge” style of craft is doomed, and that the fastest yacht will also be the best boat.

The following are the new Y.R.A. rules of measurement. We will quote the more essential rules, and those parts only of these which apply to small yachts such as we are writing about.

Rule 3.—The rating of every yacht entered to sail in a race shall be ascertained by multiplying the sail area in square feet (as found in the manner hereinafter enjoined) by the length in feet on the load water-line, and dividing the product by 6000; the quotient shall be the rating, and in rating above 10, a fraction of or exceeding ·01 shall count as 1; but in rating from 1 to 10, a fraction smaller than .01 shall count as ·1 (see Rule 4). The length shall be taken in a straight line from the fore-end to the after-end of the load water-line, provided always that if any part of the stem or stern-post or other part of the vessel below the load water-line project beyond the length taken as mentioned, such projection or projections shall, for the purpose of the rule, be added to the length taken as stated; and pieces of any form cut out of the stem, stern post, or fair-line of the ridge of the counter, with the intention of shortening the load water-line, shall not be allowed for in measurement of length, if at or immediately below the load-line, nor above if within six inches of the water-level.

Mainsail.—A, measured from the top of the boom (over the pin for outhaul sheave) to the gaff under the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, provided the peak cringle of the mainsail does not extend beyond the pin: in the case of the yacht having no topsail, or of the peak cringle extending beyond the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, then the measurement to be taken to the peak lacing-hole.

B, perpendicular to A, measured to underside of gaff close into the mast.

C, measured from top of boom over the pin of the sheave for outhaul to underside of gaff close into the mast.

D, perpendicular to C, measured in to the mast, in a line with the top of the boom, or to tack cringle of mainsail, if below top of boom.

To find the area of the Mainsail, multiply A by B and C by D, and add the two products together and divide by two.

Head Sails.—I, measured from the main boom gooseneck to the shoulder of topmast, or in cases where no sails are attached to the topmast stay or pole stay, the measurement to be taken from the main boom gooseneck to the pin of the highest sheave in or on the topmast or pole, or to the pin of the sheave of any block secured to the topmast or pole, and used in either case for head sail or spinnaker.

J, measured from the foreside of the mast to top of cranse iron on bowsprit end where cut by line of topmast stay or pole stay; or, in cases where no sail or sails are attached to the stay, the measurement to be taken from the foreside of the mast to the pin of the sheave for jib outhaul.

In all cases, if the distance from the centre fore and aft line of the mast to the outer end of spinnaker boom (when shipped in its place and square to the keel) exceeds the distance from the fore side of the mast to the cranse iron on the bowsprit end (where cut by the line of topmast stay), or pin of sheave for jib outhaul as the case may be, the excess shall be added to the base of the triangle formed by the head sails; and the area of the head sail to be computed accordingly.

In the case of a yacht having no head sail, but carrying a spinnaker, the area for head sail shall be computed from the length of spinnaker boom and the height from main boom gooseneck to shoulder of topmast, or highest pin in sheave of polemast, as provided for in this rule.

The length of head-stick or head-yard to spinnaker shall not exceed one-twentieth the length of spinnaker boom. Foot yards not allowed on spinnakers.

To find the area of Head Sails, jib, topsail, or spinnaker, multiply I by J and divide by two.

To find the area of Head Sail, for pole Mast, multiply I by J and divide by two.

Lug Sails with Head Sails.—In the case of a lug sail, standing lug sail, or balance lug sail being carried, the actual area of the same shall be computed; and if head sail be also carried, the measurements for computing the area of the same shall be taken from foreside of mast, etc., in accordance with the method provided in the rule for head sails.

Yawl Sails.—The area of a schooner’s sail or a yawl’s sail would be similarly found; in the case of a yawl having a lug mizzen, the lacing-holes in the yard would be taken as the upper boundaries.

Time Allowance (Rule 4).—Time shall be allowed on arrival for differences in rating, according to the annexed scales, increased or decreased in proportion to the length of different courses. In all time, where time has to be allowed for difference of rating in yachts of 10 rating and under, it shall be computed by the rating and fractions of the rating in accordance with the time scales.

The explanation of the calculations on which the time allowances are based will be found in the little volume of the Y.R.A. rules, annually published by Messrs. Harrison, of St. Martin’s Lane, London, in which also will be found a scale of allowances for differences of rating worked out in fractions of tenths for vessels of from ·1 to 571 rating.

It will suffice to say here, that if a vessel’s rating is x, t, the allowance she makes per knot to a yacht whose rating is 1, will be thus found:

The result is the allowance in seconds. As the allowance is calculated for one knot, the allowance for another distance will be found by multiplying t by the length of the course in knots. To calculate the allowance that should be made by one yacht to another, find the t, as above, for both yachts. Subtract the lesser from the greater t. The result will be the time in seconds to be allowed per knot by the yacht rating highest.

Allowance to Schooners and Yawls.—The Yacht Racing Association recommend for the consideration of sailing committees: (1) That as mixed races are no satisfactory test of the relative speed of yachts, the different rigs should, whenever practicable, be kept separate; but when mixed races are unavoidable, the following rule shall be observed:—

The rating of schooners and yawls to be reckoned for time allowance as follows, viz. schooners at three-fifths, and yawls at four-fifths of their actual rating; provided that in case of a yawl, her mainsail does not exceed ·37 of her total sail area, and that her mizzen is not less than ·06 of her total sail area. In the case of a pole-masted yawl, her mainsail shall not exceed ·46 of her total sail area, and her mizzen shall not be less than ·75 of her total sail area. In schooners, the foreside of the mainmast shall, at the deck, be not further forward than the middle of length of the load water-line.

Ketches and luggers shall be reckoned for time allowance at three-fifths their rating; provided that in a ketch the distance between the masts does not exceed half the length of the load water-line of the yacht, and that the smaller sail is carried aft. In the case of a lugger, to be entitled to the rig allowance, the yacht must have two or more masts, and the after, or the middle mast, at the deck must not be forward of the middle of length of the load water-line, and in the case of a two-masted lugger, if the area of the after lug be less than half the area of the main lug, she will be rated as a yawl.

In calculating the deduction for difference of rig, the rating by certificate to the exact fraction must be used. The time allowances to be calculated from each yacht’s reduced rating; but schooners and yawls shall not be allowed to qualify to enter by their reduced rating in a class race.

In racing for mixed rigs, the time allowances between yachts of the same rig must be calculated on each yacht’s reduced rating.

Yachts fitted with centre-boards have up till now been prohibited by the Y.R.A. rule from competing in races sailed under those rules. But this has now been changed, and in place of the old Rule 8, we have the following regulation: Rule 8.—“In the case of a yacht fitted with a centre-board or plate, or other form of shifting keel, manual power only shall be employed in working in it.”

In Rule 17, the rules of the road for yachts racing are given. As these are the same as the Board of Trade rules for avoiding collision, which we have already quoted, we need not recapitulate them here. But the following additional rules of the road have been framed especially for yachts competing in a race.

Rule 18.—When rounding any buoy or vessel used to mark out the course, if two yachts are not clear of each other at the time the leading yacht is close to, and actually rounding the mark, the outside yacht must give the other room to pass clear of it, whether it be the lee or weather yacht which is in danger of fouling the mark. No yacht shall be considered clear of another yacht, unless so much ahead as to give a free choice to the other on which side she will pass. An overtaking yacht shall not, however, be justified in attempting to establish an overlap, and thus force a passage between the leading yacht and the mark, after the latter yacht has altered her helm for the purpose of rounding.

Rule 19.—When passing a pier, shoal, rock, vessel, or other obstruction to sea room, should yachts not be clear of each other, the outside yacht or yachts must give room to the yacht in danger of fouling such obstruction, whether she be the weather or the leeward yacht; provided always that an overlap has been established before an obstruction is actually reached.

Rule 20.—A yacht overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the overtaken yacht; and a yacht may luff as she pleases to prevent another yacht passing to windward, but must never bear away out of her course to hinder the other passing to leeward—the lee side to be considered that on which the leading yacht of the two carries her main boom. The overtaking vessel, if to leeward, must not luff until she has drawn clear ahead of the yacht she has overtaken.

Rule 21.—If two yachts are standing towards a shore or shoal, or towards any buoy, boat, or vessel, and the yacht to leeward is likely to run aground or foul of such buoy, boat, or vessel (a mark vessel excepted), and is not able to tack without coming into collision with the yacht to windward, the latter shall at once tack, on being hailed to do so by the owner of the leeward yacht, or the person acting as his representative, who shall be bound to see that his own vessel tacks at the same time.

Rule 22.—Any yacht running on shore, or foul of a buoy, vessel, or other obstruction, may use her own anchors, boats, warps, etc., to get off, but may not receive any assistance except from the crew of the vessel fouled. Any anchor, boat, or warp used, must be taken on board again before she continues the race.

Rule 23.—Each yacht must go fairly round the course; and must not touch any buoy, boat, or vessel, used to mark it out, but shall not be disqualified if wrongfully compelled to do so by another yacht. Any yacht causing a mark vessel to in any way shift her position to avoid being fouled by such yacht, shall be disqualified. If a yacht, in consequence of her neglect of any of these rules, shall foul another yacht, or compel other yachts to foul, she shall forfeit all claim to the prize, and shall pay all damages.

Rule 24.—No towing, sweeping, poling, or pushing, or any mode of propulsion, except sails, shall be allowed, except for the purpose set forth in Rule 22.

Rule 25.—A yacht may anchor during a race, but must weigh her anchor again and not slip. No yacht shall, during a race, make fast to any buoy, pier, or other object, or send an anchor out in a boat, except for the purpose of Rule 22.

Rule 26.—No other means of sounding than the lead and line allowed.

The following rules refer to various matters:—

Rule 6.—Each yacht entered for a race, must be the bonâ fide property of the person or persons in whose name or names she is entered, who must be a member or members of a recognized yacht club.

A yacht, whilst let on hire, shall not be allowed to compete under these rules.

Rule 7.—No owner shall be allowed to enter more than one yacht in a race, except in cases in which a prize is given for each rig, when one yacht of each rig may be entered; nor shall he be entitled to enter the same yacht under different rigs for any race.

Rule 9.—Every yacht sailing in a race shall have on board a member of a recognized yacht club, who, before the prize is awarded, shall sign a declaration that the yacht under his charge has strictly conformed to all the sailing regulations.

Rule 12.—There shall be no restrictions as to sails, or the manner of setting and working them; but manual power only may be used for hoisting and working them.

Rule 13.—There shall be no limit as to the number of paid hands, and no restriction as to the number of friends, or to their working. No paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after the signal to start, except in case of accident or injury to any person on board. [This rule is not intended to apply to Corinthian matches.]

Rule 14.—All yachts exceeding a rating of 10 shall be fitted below deck with the ordinary fittings of a yacht, including two transverse bulkheads of wood. The following shall apply to all yachts: their platforms shall be kept down, and bulkheads standing.

No water shall be started from or taken into the tanks after the signal to start has been made. No more than the usual anchors and chains shall be carried during a race, which must not be used as shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the yacht. No bags of shot shall be on board, and all ballast shall be properly stowed under the platform or in lockers, and shall not be shifted or trimmed in any way during a race. No ballast or other dead weight shall be shifted, shipped, or unshipped, so as to alter the length of the load water-line, after a yacht has been entered for a race, nor without giving notice thereof to the secretary of the Yacht Racing Association, as enjoined in Rule 3.

The races organized by the recognized yacht clubs of the British Isles are all sailed under the Y.R.A. rules, but those clubs that have been established to encourage the construction and racing of small boats, such as are many of our Corinthian and river sailing clubs, adopt different methods of measurement from those of the Y.R.A., which last are not adapted for the classification of small craft. As a rule, small boats are classed by length; in some cases, their rating is ascertained by adding length, breadth, and depth together, the sum being the measurement in feet and inches.

The Y.R.A. rules for ascertaining the area of sails for rating purposes seriously handicap small yachts rigged in what may be termed river fashion. For instance, the area of the head sails of a lug-sail boat is computed in accordance with the method provided in the rule for a cutter’s head sails; that is, the after limit of the area is taken along the mast; whereas a lugsail, projecting before the mast, prevents the boat from carrying head sails that will reach so far aft as the mast.

Again, in the case of a Una or balance lug boat carrying a spinnaker, but no head sails, the whole area of the spinnaker is reckoned in the rating; whereas in the case of a boat carrying head-sails as well as spinnaker, the area of the spinnaker is not taken into account at all unless it be larger than that of the head sail, in which case the difference between them is added to the sail area. The result is that the first boat only carries the sail area for which she is rated when running before the wind.

There are various methods of arranging the start in a yacht race. One plan is to have the competing yachts anchored or moored in a line with all sails down, or after sails up and head sails down, or all sail up, as the sailing committee may direct. Lots are drawn for the different stations. Five minutes before the start a Blue Peter is hoisted and a gun is fired. At the expiration of the five minutes the Blue Peter is hauled down, and a second gun is fired as a signal to start. The yachts then slip from their moorings. If a yacht let go her moorings or drag her anchor before the second gun is fired, she is liable to be disqualified, unless the parting or dragging be explained to the satisfaction of the committee, or unless she has returned, after the signal to start, within the line of starting buoys, so as not to obtain any advantage from the accident.

Another method of starting is what is known as a flying start. The yachts are all under way, and have to keep inside an imaginary line between two marks until the starting gun is fired. Then they cross the line. If a yacht crosses the line before the signal, she must return and recross it.

Should the owner of any yacht or his representative consider that he has a fair ground of complaint against another for foul sailing, or any violation of the rules, he must, if it arise during the race, signify the same on first passing the committee vessel, by showing an ensign conspicuously in the main rigging.

We refer the reader to the little book published by Harrison and Sons, before mentioned, for the other racing regulations of the Yacht Racing Association, and to the special rules of the sailing clubs in whose regattas he wishes to compete.

CHAPTER XVI.

GLOSSARY OF NAUTICAL TERMS.

Aback.—Said of a sail when its sheet is to windward and it drives the vessel astern.

About.—On the other tack.

A-lee.—The position of the helm when it is put in an opposite direction to the wind.

A-peek.—When the chain is hove taut and the vessel is over her anchor.

A-trip.—Said of an anchor when it is hauled clear of the ground—same as weighed.

Balance Reef.—A diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft sail extending from throat to clews.

Battens.—Pieces of wood fastened to the reef-bands of lug sails to make them stand flat.

Beamy.—Broad; said of a vessel when her breadth is great in proportion to her length.

Bear away.—To steer so that a vessel sails off her course to leeward.

Belay.—To make fast the end of a rope temporarily by turning it round a cleat.

Bight.—The loop formed by a rope when a knot or hitch is being made.

Bolt Rope.—The rope surrounding a sail, and to which the canvas is sewed.

Brail up.—To furl a sail along the mast by hauling on a rope which is led from the mast round the sail.

Breaming.—Cleaning a vessel’s bottom by burning the paint or tar off.

Bridle.—A rope with its two ends fastened to the two ends of a spar—as to a trawl beam, or to a deep-sea anchor—and held by a rope attached to the middle of the bight.

Broach to.—To fall off so much, when going free, as to bring the vessel nearly broadside on to the wind.

Bulkhead.—Partitions dividing a vessel into sections.

Bumpkin.—A spar projecting from a vessel to which a sheet or other rope is led; for instance, the mizzen sheet is led through a block or sheave hole at the end of the mizzen bumpkin.

Channels.—Stout pieces of timber bolted on the outside of a vessel, to which the dead-eyes of the rigging are fastened.

Chock a Block.—When the upper and lower blocks of a tackle touch each other and one can hoist no higher.

Clew.—The lower after corner of a fore-and-aft sail.

Clip-hook.—A metal eye, with two hooks attached to it, working on the same pivot, so that they overlap when closed.

Close-hauled.—Said of a vessel when she is sailing as close to the wind as possible.

Coamings.—A raised ledge round the well of a boat to prevent the water running in.

Cranse-iron.—An iron hoop at the bowsprit end, with eyes fitted to it, to which the bobstay and topmast stay are fastened.

Cringle.—A rope eye spliced into the bolt rope of a sail enclosing an iron thimble, through which a reef earing is rove.

Crown of an Anchor.—Where the arms and shank join.

Crutch.—A wooden support for the main-boom when the mainsail is furled.

Dead-eye.—A wooden block with three sheaveless holes through which the lanyards of the main-shrouds are rove.

Dinghy.—The smallest of a yacht’s boats.

Earing.—A rope which passes through the cringle of a sail and serves to reef it.

Eyes of the Rigging.—The loops of the shrouds and stays which are passed over the mast-head and rest on the hounds.

Fair-leader.—A block or comb cleat for running rigging, e.g., jib sheets to lead through.

Flukes.—The barbs at the extremities of an anchor’s arms.

Forefoot.—A piece of timber at the fore end of the keel, to which the heel of the stem fits.

Forereach.—To shoot ahead in stays.

Garboard Streak.—The range of planks on each side of the keel.

Get in Irons.—A vessel is in irons when she is in the wind’s eye, and, having lost all headway, will not go off on either tack.

Gimbals.—A contrivance consisting of two or more metal hoops balanced on pivots, so that a compass or lamp swung within the gimbals will not oscillate, but preserve a vertical position.

Grapnel.—A small anchor having more than two arms.

Ground Tackle.—The tackle—anchor, cables, and springs—used in anchoring a vessel.

Guy.—A rope attached to anything to steady it and prevent its moving. Thus a spinnaker boom has its fore and after guys, and a mainboom is guyed to prevent its swinging aft.

Hawse-hole.—The hole in the bows through which the chain runs.

Hawser.—A large rope used for warping, etc.

Helm down.—When the helm is put over in the direction towards which the wind is blowing.

Helm up.—When the helm is put over in the direction the wind is blowing from.

Hounds.—The wooden shoulders at the masthead on which the eyes of the shrouds rest.

House.—To house a topmast is to lower it.

Jibe.—When running, to bring the wind on the other quarter, so that the boom swings over.

Kedge.—A small anchor. To kedge, is to warp a vessel along with hawser and kedge.

Lanyards.—Ropes rove through the dead-eyes to set up the standing rigging.

Lee-helm.—A vessel is said to carry lee-helm when she has a tendency to pay off before the wind, and the tiller has to be kept down in order to counteract this.

Limbers.—Holes cut in the floor timbers to allow the water in the bilge to flow freely.

List.—Said of a vessel when she leans sideways, for instance to leeward before the pressure of the wind.

Marline.—Small cord or spun-yarn.

Mouse.—To put turns of rope yarn round a hook so as to prevent it slipping out from what it is hooked to. For instance, the sister hooks of the jib sheets are moused to prevent them escaping from the clew of the jib.

Neaped.—When a vessel has got aground at the top of the spring tides and must await the next springs before she can get off.

Preventer.—An additional rope placed to assist another one in supporting a strain, e.g., a preventer backstay.

Purchase.—An arrangement of ropes and pulleys by which a mechanical power is gained.

Quarter.—The after part of a vessel’s side.

Range.—To range chain, is to get a certain quantity before the windlass so that, when the anchor is let go, it will run out to the bottom without a check.

Reefing.—To reduce the area of a sail by rolling and tying up a portion of it. Also to shorten the bowsprit by hauling it partly in board.

Round In.—To haul in on a rope.

Run.—The run of a vessel is the after part of her narrowing up to the stern post. To let a halyard go by the run is to let it go altogether and not to slack it out gently.

Running.—Sailing before the wind.

Running Rigging.—The ropes, such as halyards, that are hauled upon in order to hoist or trim sails, as opposed to the standing rigging—shrouds and stays which are not moved in working a vessel.

Sag.—To sag to leeward is to drift before the wind or make leeway.

Scuppers.—Holes through which the water runs overboard off the decks.

Shake up.—To luff up for a short time without losing a vessel’s way, so that the sails may shake, and the pressure of the wind being taken off them, the crew are enabled to take a pull on the halyards or purchases.

Shank.—The long bar or stem of an anchor connecting the arms with the stock.

Sheave-hole.—A hole in a spar to reeve a rope through.

Sheet.—A rope attached to the clews of a sail, by means of which the sail is trimmed to the wind.

Small Stuff.—Spun-yarn, marline, etc., used for serving, seizing, and other purposes.

Spars.—The masts, yards, booms, etc., on which a vessel’s sails are extended.

Stays.—Ropes supporting a mast. In Stays.—When a vessel is in the wind’s eye while going about from one tack to another.

Sternboard.—When a vessel is going stern foremost.

Stiff.—A vessel is stiff when she can carry plenty of sail without listing over. The opposite to crank.

Stock.—The cross bar at the end of an anchor’s shank.

Stop.—A fastening of small stuff.

Strop.—An eye of rope or wire spliced round a block.

Tabernacle.—A mast step on deck, in which the mast works on an iron pivot, and so can be easily lowered.

Tack.—The lower fore corner of a sail.

Taffrail.—The rail round a vessel’s stern.

Thimble.—An iron ring, with a concave outer edge, into which a strop can be fitted.

Toggle.—A pin fastened to the end of a rope, which can be thrust through the eye of another rope, and so secure them together. The jib sheets are often secured to the clew of the jib in this way.

Topping Lift.—The rope which sustains the weight of the end of the boom, and by hauling on which the boom can be raised to the required height.

Truck.—A circular block of wood at the masthead with holes in it through which the signal halyards are rove.

Waist.—The midships section of a vessel.

Wash-boards.—Board placed above the gunwale of a boat to keep the water out.

Water-ways.—The long timbers running fore and aft that divide the decks from the vessel’s sides.

Weather Helm.—A ship is said to carry weather helm when she has a tendency to come up into the wind, and requires the tiller to be kept to windward so as to counteract this.

Whip.—A purchase formed by a rope rove through a single block.

Yaw.—When a vessel goes off her course first to one side then to the other.