TWELFE NIGHT
The winsomeness of this poetic comedy rightly makes the reader or the hearer hesitate to count its petals or scrutinize the stages of its growth, which are marked by its acts as symmetrically as leaf buds are ranged about a stalk. And yet, one may find that to take note of such beautiful orderliness in the delicate structure and sprightly blossoming of the poet's design enhances the appreciation of its artistic quality. Regarding it first as a whole, sum up the stages of the action, first; then the caprices its allusions denote; then the characters; and finally the poetic fancy and wit exhaled by the whole play like a fragrance.
I
THE STORY OF THE PLAY
Act I. scene i. puts us in possession of what facts concerning the Duke and Olivia? What do we learn from the conversation of Viola and the Captain in scene ii., and what course does Viola decide upon? What do we discover from scene iii. in regard to the state of things in Olivia's household? In scene iv., what relation has been established between the Duke and Viola? What three new characters are introduced in scene v., and what is the event of the scene? Act II. scene i.: What is learned of Sebastian and his intentions? In scene ii., what are shown to be the feelings of Olivia? In what previous scene was this prepared for? Does scene iii. advance the story at all? What is it taken up with? Does scene iv. advance the story? Of what scene is it almost a repetition? If it does not advance the action, what does it do? Of what previous scene is scene v. the result? What previous scene leads up to scene i. of Act III? and of what scene is it in purpose a repetition? What new turn is given to affairs in scene ii., and through whom is it brought about? Whose doings do we get a glimpse of in scene iii? Of whose plot do we see further developments in scene iv? What other issues in the progress of events come to a climax in this Act? Act IV. scene i.: Describe the complication of affairs which arises in this scene. What previous scenes do we see the result of in scene ii? and what happens that will bring about a change in the situation? What important event occurs in this scene iii? Act V. scene i.: Describe how in this scene all the complications are unravelled, and by what means all the characters are brought upon the stage. What do you think of the device to call Malvolio upon the stage? Does it not seem rather clumsy, or do you think it a further humorous touch that Viola should have to depend on Malvolio to find her 'woman's weeds again'?
What becomes evident after tracing the events of the play through in this way? That the interest of the play does not depend so much upon the story itself, as, first, upon the amusing situations resultant from the story, and, second, upon the scenes which introduce the characters in Olivia's household who are really not at all concerned in the development of the plot, but who are the occasion of many added amusing situations.
What constitutes the real interest of the two short scenes between Sebastian and Antonio? Their bearing, mainly, on scene iv. of Act III. By means of them we are shown that Antonio has an enemy in Orsino, and thus his arrest is prepared for, also how Antonio gives his purse to Sebastian, the real purpose of the arrest being to bring about a reason for Antonio's requiring his purse again from Cesario, whom he takes for Sebastian, and so to add complication to the situation arising from the resemblance between the brother and sister.
What are the situations which the story gives Shakespeare a chance to develop? On the one hand, is the Duke pouring out his love for another woman to his supposed page, who is in love with him, and thus giving rise to the series of scenes between the Duke and Viola. On the other hand, is the supposed page pressing his master's suit to a woman who loves the supposed page, and thus giving rise to the series of scenes between Viola and Olivia. Out of this love of Olivia for Viola grows the absurd situation of Viola's being obliged to fight a duel, which is made still more ridiculous through the circumstance of her challenger being a fool. Out of Viola's resemblance to her brother and her disguise grows the absurd situation of Olivia's claiming her as a husband, and that of Sir Andrew taking for his unwilling duellist the all-too-willing Sebastian.
To these situations which naturally result from the story, Shakespeare has added in Olivia's household a set of characters whose personality is such that amusing situations are multiplied. Thus we may say that the play is one of situation rather than of action, since whatever of action there is in it leads to situation, and whatever of character there is in it leads also to situation.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
1. If attention is constantly given to creating humorous situations, will character-development necessarily suffer? 2. Do you agree with the Shakespearian critic Verplanck that this play bears no indication either of an original groundwork of incident, afterwards enriched by the additions of a fuller mind, or of thoughts, situations, and characters accidentally suggested, or growing unexpectedly out of the story, as the author proceeded?
II
THE WHIMSICAL AND OTHER ALLUSIONS IN THE PLAY
Pick out and explain the curious allusions in the play, noticing that these may be classed as geographical, mythological, astrological, or referable to persons or customs of the time, or books of the day. For examples of the latter class, note Sir Toby's 'diluculo surgere' (II. iii.), for 'Saluberrimum est dilucolu surgere,' an adage from Lilly's Grammar, doubtless one of Shakespeare's text-books at the Edward VI. School in Stratford; and Viola's 'Some Mollification for your giant sweet lady' (I. v.),—an allusion to the innumerable romances whose fair ladies are guarded by giants; for Maria, being very small, Viola ironically calls her giant, and asks Olivia to pacify her because she has opposed her message. (For Shakespeare's education and school-books, see Bayne's remarks on this subject in Brit. Encyc. art. Shakespeare.) The whole incident of the 'possession' of Malvolio, and the visit of Sir Topas, probably alludes to a tract published in 1599 by Dr. Harsnett,—'A Discovery of the Fraudulent Practices of John Darrel,'—in which is narrated how the Starkeys' children were possessed by a demon, and how the Puritan minister, Mr. Darrel, was concerned in it. For examples of allusions to contemporary customs, see Sir Toby's mention of dances no longer known,—'Galliard,' 'Coranto,' etc. As an example of allusions to persons of that time, Sir Toby's reference to 'Mistress Mall's picture,'—Mary Frith, born in 1584, died in 1659, a notorious woman who used to go about in man's clothing and was the target for much abuse. Astrological allusions: 'Were we not born under Taurus?' 'That's sides and hearts,' which refers to the medical astrology still preserved in patent-medicine almanacs, where the figure of a man has his various parts named by the signs of the Zodiac. 'Diana's lip' (I. iv.), ('Arion on the Dolphin's back' I. ii.), are examples of mythological allusions. Of the geographical allusions there are two kinds, the real and the sportive,—Illyria, an example of the one, the 'Vapians' and the 'Equinoctial of Queubus,' of the other. Go on through the play classifying and commenting on the allusions. What was a 'catch'? Give an example.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are the odd allusions in the play a result of the corrupt text, ignorance, ridicule of learning? Or are they introduced to give a lively and contemporaneous effect?
III
THE DUKE AND SEBASTIAN
How does the play set off these two lovers against each other? Which has the more constant nature? Note the evidences of the Duke's restlessness and changeableness; how soon he tires of the music he calls for, of the clown's song (II. iv.). Is his first speech to Viola, on woman's constancy before the song, consistent with his second, after it? Is his own report of himself true,—'Unstaid and skittish in all motions else Save in the constant image of the one beloved'? Is Olivia's unattainableness the main source of her desirableness for him? How is it with Sebastian? Does his loyalty in love seem to be of the sort that suffers impairment when he can win love easily? The Duke craves excess in music in order that his 'appetite may sicken and so die;' Sebastian wishes 'to steep his soul in Lethe.' Do you think Sebastian and Viola alike in more than appearance? Which is the quicker-witted? Is the Duke's amicable acceptance of the inevitable and transference of his love to Viola in keeping with his character? Do you think Viola shows promise of special facility for preventing the moody Duke from tiring of her? Note that he calls her his 'fancy's queen.'
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is the Duke important chiefly as the inspirer of Viola's devoted love?
IV
VIOLA AND OLIVIA
In what respects are the situations of Viola and Olivia alike? When the play opens, both are mourning the loss of a brother, and while this is made to point out the individuality of Olivia, after the first few lines we hear little more of Viola's grief. Can you suggest any reason for this? Does Viola's love for the Duke absorb her any more than Olivia's love absorbs her when she comes to feel the same? Viola and Olivia are also alike in giving their love without solicitation; but Olivia woos directly, Viola, in disguise, implies her love, and though her innuendoes are all understood by the audience, they are unappreciated by the Duke. What justification can be made for the unblushing love-making of Olivia? It could be justified by her rank, which was so much higher than that of the supposed page that advances should come from her. What signs are there that Viola's love was superior to Olivia's? Olivia's seems to have been founded on external liking, else she would not have been as satisfied with Sebastian as with Cesario; while Viola's, though it may have had no deeper foundation, was signalized by unselfishness, for she used every eloquent art of which she was capable to urge her master's suit. Notice in the first scene between Viola and the Duke how she tries to get out of going to Olivia, doubting her own ability, etc. Do you think she really doubted it, or that it was difficult for her on account of her own love for the Duke? Notice in the scene with Olivia her woman's anxiety to see her rival's face. What do you think instigated her remark, 'Excellently done, if God did all.' Was it a sudden touch of jealousy? It was clearly not the proper thing for an ambassador pressing his master's suit to say. How is it with the rest of the interview? Is her sarcastic tone judicious? Does it pique the nonchalant Olivia? Does her eloquence later, when she is assured of Olivia's obstinacy, reflect her own feelings for the Duke? What effect does it have on Olivia? Is it well-calculated to arouse her interest? In Act II. scene iv., which do you think had the right conception of woman's love,—the Duke or Cesario? What do you think of Olivia's saying that 'Love sought is good, but given unsought is better'? Which of the two characters show the more humor? Notice Viola's readiness in parrying questions that trench upon her sex. Olivia, on the other hand, can hold her own in a bout of wit with the fool, but she is perhaps not so quick-witted as Viola. We can imagine Viola at once seeing through Malvolio's attempt at pleasing Olivia, instead of taking him for mad, as Olivia did.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Which is the best lover, the Duke, Sebastian, Olivia, or Viola?
V
SIR TOBY AND MARIA, AND THEIR BUTTS OR DUPES
Show how the droll situations of the play are mainly contrived by some of the characters in order to make others their laughing-stocks. Who are Sir Toby's butts? Is Sir Toby attached to Sir Andrew, or does he only make use of him for profit as well as fun? (See Sir Toby's reply to Fabian (III. iii.)). Other instances to the same effect? Why does Maria join forces with Sir Toby? Is she in fact the leader of the scheme, or is Fabian's story of its origin true? What part does the fool play in the game, and why? Note his private grudge against Malvolio. Is it a dramatic mistake that even the heroine is made the butt of these merry-makers? Trace Fabian's part in the duelling plot against Sir Andrew and Viola. Do these plots recoil in any way against the plotters? Sir Toby and Sir Andrew both get some home-truths from Malvolio while they are eavesdropping, while for Fabian and Maria these thrusts of Malvolio's are just as good fun as that which the knights enjoy better. How does some of the later fun recoil against Toby and Sir Andrew? Are the Puritans made fun of in Malvolio's person?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Are the characters least scathed by the fun for that reason superior to the others?
VI
MINOR CHARACTERS
The fun of the play is capped by the presence of a particularly clever fool whose function of making every one the butt of his wit makes one of the least important of the characters represent the special drollery of the whole play. The only grudge he bears is against the man who does not appreciate fun—who calls him a 'barren rascal.' Describe the passages in which he particularly shines. Of the minor characters the fool is minor only through his station and unimportance in the plot; he really occupies much space in the play and in fact pervades it. How is Antonio connected with the plot? What traits of his does the play bring out? Is his fondness for Sebastian unnatural? How is he concerned in the foolery of the play? Is he necessary to the plot? As the fool represents the merry-making spirit of the play, so Malvolio stands for the dupes of it. Does any one sympathize with him? Who shows the clearest understanding of his faults? (I. v.). What signs are there in the play of Malvolio's being a Puritan? Is there any evidence against it? Is Maria right, for example, when she says, 'The Devil a Puritan he is or anything constantly but a time-server,' etc.? That the character of Malvolio was generally taken on the stage as a portrait of the Puritan, and that Shakespeare must have known it would borrow some of its popularity from being so considered, seems not to be denied; on the other hand, it may hardly seem to be proven that Shakespeare thought he was drawing a genuine Puritan. Show Malvolio's character, his connection with the other characters and with the plot and the foolery of the play, and state the argument for and against Shakespeare's meaning to make fun of him as a Puritan.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is it a defect in the play that the fool, who has less to do with the plot, is more important than Antonio, who has somewhat more to do with it? Does it show that the main interest of the play is in comic situation rather than in character or dramatic motive?
VII
THE POETIC FIGURES IN THE PLAY
Observe the various figures used throughout the play, as to whether they are drawn from nature or from other sources; for example, the first speech of the Duke bristles with metaphor. Note that he speaks of music as the food of love, and bids the musicians play on that the appetite may have a surfeit, images drawn from physical nature; then that the music came o'er his ear like the sweet sound that breathes upon a bank of violets, stealing and giving odor. We should expect here some continuation in the language of sound; but the Duke continues as if he had said wind instead of sound, and then wind is personified, for it breathes instead of blows on the bank of violets, and it steals their odor and gives it to him,—the music is so sweet that it seems as if its sounds came laden with the scent of violets to his ear. Here sound is personified at first as merely breathing, then it takes on moral attributes and steals and gives. Pick out and explain other figures in the same way. Which of the characters use the most beautiful imagery? Are there any who use none at all?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is there any special fitness in the imagery used to the character using it? Does the imagery used help you to form an opinion of the characters?
VIII
THE WIT OF THE PLAY
What are the main causes of amusement in the play? The audience, notice, is not kept in the dark one instant about any of the characters. Thus one of the sources of amusement lies in the fact that while the audience occupies somewhat the attitude of omnipotence, it has the pleasure of observing the characters of the play living their lives in the purblind way usual to mortals. Lessing said that a comedy should make us laugh at vices, but the vices must be those of characters who have good qualities also. Does 'Twelfe Night' answer to this description? Analyze the causes why the fun of the play is funny.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Which of the characters cause amusement as the result of circumstances over which they have no control? How do each of these cause amusement unconsciously? Which of the characters cause amusement through a conscious intention of making fun?
THE TEMPEST
Until a few years ago no one had succeeded in finding the Play or Novel on which the European part of the plot of "The Tempest" was founded.
An early German Play, "The Fair Sidea" had been brought forward on account of some resemblances to "The Tempest." Yet it is obviously not its source but rather an imitation or variant indirectly drawn from a similar foundation story.
Edmund Dorer, a special student of Spanish Literature first called
attention (Jan. 31, 1885,) to the story more closely resembling "The
Tempest" than any other, as it occurs in a collection of tales by
Antonio de Eslava, called Las Noches de Invierno, or "Winter
Nights," published in Madrid in 1609.
Like other such collections of stories, such as the Italian collection of Bandello, and the French of Belleforest, used by Shakespeare, Eslava's collection was translated, and, in default of the original from one of the later editions, as translated into German in 1683 (Noches de Invierno Winternachte aus dem Spanischen in die Deutsche sprach versetzet) a summary of this story was given in English for the first time as a satisfactory source of "The Tempest" in the "First Folio Edition" of the Play (see pp. 85-93 and Introduction; also for an extract and summary of "The Fair Sidea," pp. 94-95).
What may be called the American half of the plot evidently owes suggestions to pamphlet accounts of the storm and wreck and other experiences met with by Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sommers and others during their voyage of discovery to the Bermudas in 1610 (see pp. 92, 99, and Notes pp. 114, 125-127, etc., for extracts.)
Gonzalo's speech, too, follows pretty closely a passage in Florio's
Montaigue. (For this passage see Note on II. i. 153-160).
ACT I
THE SCHEMES OF PROSPERO.
The first scene shows the storm in progress. Is there any clew given to the reader that it is a magic tempest? What is Prospero's main object in having the ship's crew and passengers cast upon his island? Is it to wreak vengeance on his enemies, to work the charm of love between Ferdinand and Miranda, or by means of that to reinstate himself? In what way would this love work to his advantage? Notice the natural way in which the reader is put in possession of the necessary information about the past of Prospero and Miranda. Warburton says of this that it is the finest example he knows of retrospective narration for the sake of informing the audience of the plot. How much of the plot is permitted to come out in this act? Why does Prospero so repeatedly urge Miranda's attention? Is she abstracted, is he, or is she already beginning to be drowsy? Why was Ferdinand the first to quit the ship? Since Prospero already knows, why does he ask Ariel what time it is?
POINTS. 1. Explain the nautical terms. 'Master's whistle.' In Shakespeare's time naval commanders wore great whistles of gold. A modern boatswain's badge is a silver whistle suspended to the neck by a lanyard. Holt extols the excellence of Shakespeare's sea-terms, but makes an exception of Gonzalo's 'cable,' which he says is of no use unless the ship is at anchor, and here it is plainly sailing; to which Furness replies, Shakespeare anchors Gonzalo's hopes on the boatswain's 'gallows complexion,' and the cable of that anchor was the hangman's rope. 2. 'Washing of ten tides.' An allusion to the custom of hanging pirates at low-water mark. (See Notes I. i. 67 First Folio Edition). 3. Compare this storm with that in 'Pericles,'—'Do not assist the storm,' etc., with 'Per.' III. i. 51-60. 4. Explain 'To trash for over-topping,' I. ii. 98, which is a blending of two metaphors. Trash refers to the habit of hanging a weight round the neck of the fleetest of a pack of hounds, to keep him from getting ahead of the rest; and 'overtopping' to trees shooting up above the others in a grove, which have to be lopped to keep them even. 5. What does Prospero mean by saying, 'Now I arise'? Simply, now I get up, and now my fortunes change? 6. 'Still vex'd Bermoothes.' Bermudas, spelled in several ways in Shakespeare's time, and called 'still vex'd,' from accounts of tempests prevailing there. 7. 'Argier.' The name of Algiers till after the Restoration. 8. 'One thing she did.' What? Are we anywhere told what?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does the long monologue of Prospero in this act detract from its dramatic force? Did the arrangement of Shakespeare's stage make this convenient. (See description of the threefold stage of the Globe Theatre in "Anthonie and Cleopatra," pp. 172-173). Is the monologue rightly disused in modern plays? Why? Compare Ibsen's plays in this respect.
ACT II
THE COUNTERPLOT
Tell the story of Act II, showing how its main event is the conspiracy of Antonio and Sebastian against Alonzo and Gonzalo. Is the issue left undecided long, so that it threatens the result? How and why does Ariel prevent the success of it? Might it not have been to Prospero's advantage to have the King killed, since Ferdinand would then succeed to the throne of Naples? Did Ariel's intervention kill the plot? What light is thrown on the characters by scene i. of this act? Do you think it is intended to be shown that Gonzalo is prosy and tiresome, although good, or only that the lower and more frivolous characters find him so? Which is the likelier, that Shakespeare intended the dialogue about Gonzalo's ideal commonwealth to be a satire upon it, or favorable to Utopian schemes? Which comes out the better at last in the wit-combat,—the quick Antonio and Sebastian, or the thoughtful Gonzalo? Is Sebastian's solicitude about Claribel a sign of a kindlier nature than Antonio's? Are there any indications that Antonio's mind is more alert than Sebastian's? What purposes of the action or plot are served by the introduction of Claribel? Is the King's grief as great for the daughter as for the son? How does his paternal affection compare with Prospero's? Compare Antonio's speech, suggesting the murder to Sebastian, with similar speeches in Shakespeare (Macbeth's, King John's, Oliver's in 'As You Like It,' Claudius' in 'Hamlet'). In the second scene of this act, how far is a second counter-plot foreshadowed?
POINTS. 1. The jokes of Act II: their explanation (i.e., 'dollar' and 'dolour,' the 'eye of green,' etc.). 2. When were watches first used in Europe? 3. Tell the story of Æneas and Dido. 4. What myth is alluded to in 'his word is more than the miraculous harp'? 5. Gonzalo's Commonwealth—its origin from Montaigne. It is commonly supposed that Shakespeare must have borrowed this reference from the translation. He may have taken it directly from the French. 6. Show the bearing of Sebastian's phrase, 'I am standing water,' with its context. (That is, at the turn of the tide between ebb and full.) 7. 'The man i' the moon,' and the folk-lore about it. 8. Natural history on the island. (Poet-Lore, April, 1894. Notes and News).
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is it a defect in the action of the play that the danger arising from the most important counter-plot is allayed so soon?
ACT III
NEW PLOTS AGAINST PROSPERO
What new turns are given events in Act III? Scene i continues Ferdinand's love-making, and shows no hinddrances there to Prospero's plans; but scene ii develops Caliban's plot, and scene iii shows Sebastian and Antonio making ready to carry out the purpose which had at first been defeated. Give an account of the scene in Act II which leads up to this plot in connection with its sequel in this act. Ariel is baffled in his attempts to breed contention between the conspirators by Trinculo's good nature, but finally he leads them off with his music. Scene iii represents Alonzo and his courtiers bewildered and tired by their fruitless tramps through the island, and in just the temper to be confused by the dumb-show and the harpies. Note the dependence placed, throughout 'The Tempest,' on the effect of 'solemn and strange music.' Antonio's plot, being resumed, is blocked by Ariel's magic show and his accusation. Note how the supernatural quality of the scene makes his speech affect their consciences as if they were themselves accusing themselves, and how it drives them into mental disorder. Dr. Bucknill, a specialist in brain disease, who has commented on Shakespeare's knowledge of such maladies, explains that Alonzo's frenzy leads him by an imaginative melancholy to the idea of suicide, while the madness of Antonio and Sebastian expresses itself in the idea of desperate fight.
POINTS. 1. What is a 'catch,' a 'tabor'? Give an account of the music in the play, and show the fitness of its different effects on the different characters. 2. Explain the allusions, 'unicorns,' 'one tree, the Phoenix throne,' 'mountaineers,' with 'wallets of flesh,' etc. 3. What is a harpy? Give an account of the mention of harpies in Virgil (Æneid, Book III), and 'Paradise Regained' (Book II). What appropriateness to the purpose in this 'quaint device'?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Do the counter-plots introduced in this act mainly affect events or character?
ACT IV
THE CONFUSION OF THE PLOTTERS
Show how the story of Act IV consists in the smoothing down of all that disturbs Prospero's designs, and foreshadows the complete reconciliation of the last act. The lovers, whose readiness to fall in with Prospero's plan has made his task light so far as they are concerned, could only imperil his and their future by a premature union; and Ferdinand, having stood the test of hard work, is now induced, by an awed and holy mood, produced by art, to keep his good resolutions. Describe the mask, and show its meaning and fitness for Prospero's purposes. Why is Prospero so disturbed at the reminder of so paltry a plot as that of Caliban and his associates? Is it likely that these drunken fellows could frame any plot that would be but as gossamer before his art? Is it natural that so low a creature as Caliban should show more intelligence than Stephano and Trinculo in disregarding Ariel's 'stale' set to catch them? How do you explain his superior caution? Describe the device employed by Prospero and Ariel to rout these plotters. Would it be effective on an English stage?
POINTS. 1. Explanation of classical allusions. 'Hymen's lamps,' 'Phoebus' steeds,' Ceres, Iris, Juno, etc.; 'dusky Dis,' 'Paphos,' etc. 2. The botany of Act IV. What is 'stover,' 'furze,' gorse? 3. Was Prospero's 'line' a lime-tree or a clothes-line? 4. Explanation of the jokes of the act. 5. Natural history on the island again: the 'blind mole,' 'barnacles,' 'apes,' 'pard,' etc.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Why is the punishment devised for the lesser plotters corporal and for the greater ones psychical?
ACT V
PROSPERO'S TRIUMPH
Sum up the results consummated by Prospero's magic. Note Gonzalo's account of the play, and show the ethical results, and Ariel's part in Prospero's course of reconciliation. Explain how, if Prospero had regained his dukedom, and yet, if 'all of us,' as Gonzalo says, had not found ourselves, the triumph would have been material, not ethical. Show how this effect is enhanced by the plan to awaken dismay and remorse in the minds of the evil-doers and how the climax in Prospero's triumph is reached by the victory wrought in his own mind when he determines to take part with his 'nobler reason 'gainst his fury' in order to restore his enemies to themselves. What indications are there in the play that Prospero was high-strung and spirited,—a revenge-loving Italian? Trace the effects of remorse on each of the ill-doers. Is there any reason to suppose that Antonio, Stephano, or Trinculo are repentant? Is it out of character for Caliban to be?
POINTS. 1. The 'Faerie' of the play. Compare with that of 'Midsummer Night's Dream.' (See 'Fairy-lore of Midsummer Night's Dream,' Poet Lore, Vol. III, p. 177, April, 1891.) Victor Hugo notes the contrast as follows: '"Midsummer Night's Dream" depicts the action of the invisible world on man; "The Tempest" symbolizes the action of man on the invisible world.' (See also the 'Supernatural in Shakespeare's "Midsummer Night's Dream."' in Poet Lore, Vol. V, p. 490, October, 1893; in Shakespeare's 'Tempest,' p. 557, November, 1893.)
2. The duration of the play. Explain how it follows the 'unities'; and in this connection show the probable equality of 'three glasses' to three hours, and Shakespeare's mistake. (Shakespeare's use of nautical terms, approved by all seamen, seems to be here at fault in supposing a 'glass' equal to one, instead of to a half, hour.)
3. The game of chess and its pertinence here: Because so wise a father would have taught his daughter so intellectual a game; because Queen Elizabeth was fond of it, and it was par excellence a 'royal game'; or because Naples was the source and center of the chess furore at just this time?
4. Where is the scene of the 'Tempest' laid? Is the island real or unreal? (The main conjectures for a known place are Hunter's that it was Lampedusa, and Elze's that it was Pantelaria. Both argue that each island was so situated in the Mediterranean, between Milan or its port and Algiers, whence the sailors landed Sycorax, as to suit the requirements. Elze further urges the name of a town on the opposite African coast, Calibia, as suggesting Caliban's name. For an argument that the island is vaguely placed in the Mediterranean to suit the Old World plot and yet by many details made suggestive of the New World, see Introduction to 'The Tempest' in First Folio Edition.)
5. The influence of the New World on the writing of 'The Tempest,' and all allusions traceable to it. (See Notes of same edition for extracts from pamphlets on America, etc.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
What constitutes the interest in 'The Tempest,'—character, dramatic situations, movements, plot, poetry, or moral purpose?
VI
CHARACTER STUDIES
I. PROSPERO AND HIS SERVANTS
With the first word Shakespeare introduces Prospero as one who can raise and calm such a tempest as scene i describes, and the magician admits the power Miranda ascribes to him. Show from the story what his plans and motives were likely to prove. Would a sense of his own former neglect of duty be likely to embitter him against his brother or make him excuse him? Does he show signs of either? Prospero's magic, his garment, books, staff. How far is his magic in accord with the popular notions of such art? (See 'Prospero and Magic,' Poet Lore, Vol. III, p. 144, March, 1891.)
Show Ariel's qualities. What caused his first impatience? Is Prospero unnecessarily harsh and imperious with him? Aside from the popular supposition that spirits or familiars obeying magicians were always reluctant to serve longer than one hour (and, therefore, says Scot's 'Discovery of Witchcraft,' 'the magician must be careful to dismiss him'), how can you explain this quarrel,—as a dramatic expedient giving occasion for telling Ariel's story, or revealing the characters of both Prospero and Ariel? Note, also, its further use in introducing Prospero's second servant, Caliban, and his story. How do you explain Ariel's irrelevant rejoinder: 'Yes, Caliban, her son'; and Prospero's angry, 'Dull thing, I say so,' etc.? Do you think Moulton right in supposing that Prospero governs 'this incarnation of caprice by outcapricing him'; Rolfe, in supposing that Prospero is irritable because under the strain and suspense of conducting affairs within three hours perfectly, and upon which accuracy hangs his future and the happiness of his daughter? This was also his only chance of retrieving his own past error.
Contrast Ariel with Caliban. Show the skill of Caliban's first appearance as some slow-moving thing, half of water, half of earth, in contrast with Ariel's second appearance as a nymph. What may be learned of Caliban's traits from Miranda's speech (as in the Folio, but by various editors given to Prospero): 'Abhorred slave,' etc.? Do you think this speech should be given to Prospero? What signs are there of Caliban's having a good mind? Do you think Prospero's tyranny over Caliban altogether justified? Is Caliban's penitence consistent with his nature? How far does Ariel proceed independently of Prospero? Is he really fond of him?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is there any bond of love between Prospero and his servants? Do the relations between them illustrate the impossibility of gratitude?
2. THE LOVERS
Is the love of Ferdinand and Miranda an enchantment caused by Prospero, or an emotion he can help, but not cause? If not caused by him, does Shakespeare depart from magic to the detriment of the play? Would it be better, for example, if a love philter was introduced for consistency's sake? (For literary use of the love philter, see Tennyson's 'Lucretius.') Does it reflect against Ferdinand's courage that he was first to quit the ship? Are Miranda's speeches about her grandmother (I, ii, 140) and to Caliban inconsistent with the maidenly innocence assumed to be characteristic of her? Do you consider her talk with Ferdinand (III, i) in character? Is she undutiful to her father? Unmaidenly in her speedy declaration of love (III, i, 67, 89, 94-106, 110)? Should she be represented as ignorant or innocent of the world, or as in love? Describe the characters and relations to each other of the lovers from all that is given about them. Compare with Florizel and Perdita in 'The Winter's Tale.'
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are Miranda and Ferdinand undeveloped characters whose relation to each other is more important to the play than they themselves are?
3. THE MINOR CHARACTERS
Which is the most important of the lesser characters and why? Is Gonzalo blamable at all under the circumstances for following the command to turn Prospero and Miranda adrift? Why is Gonzalo of better cheer than his companions? What do you think of his philosophy in itself and as an index to his character? Is his knowledge superior to that of his companions? Does he suspect the evil intent of Antonio and Sebastian? Show how his frankness and loyalty came out in Act III, and how his uprightness is rewarded in Act V. Do you think it significant that he closes the play? Francisco considered as the least important personage in the play: should his speech describing Ferdinand's swimming be given to Gonzalo? The sailors considered as examples of Shakespeare's skill in outline portraits. Are Stephano and Trinculo more highly developed types than Caliban? Would the play be better if they were left out?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Gonzalo more like Polonius in 'Hamlet' or Rent in 'Lear'?
VII
A STUDY OF ARTISTIC DESIGN
THE SYMBOLISM OF 'THE TEMPEST'
Did Shakespeare typify himself as Prospero? Prospero (says Montégut) alludes to his own age, and intimates that the time has come for retirement to private life. What indications can you find that Prospero images Shakespeare? If he is so interpreted, what parts may Ariel and Caliban be supposed to play? Is the history of the Enchanted Island and the transformation wrought a parallel with the history of the Stage and the transformation Shakespeare wrought? According to Montégut, Caliban stands for Marlowe, Ariel for the English Genius which Shakespeare frees from its barbaric prison. Dowden ('Mind and Art of Shakespeare') fancies Prospero as the great artist lacking at first in practical faculty, cast out therefore from practical worldly success; but bearing with him Art in her infancy, the child Miranda, finds at last an enchanted country where his arts can work their magic, subduing the grosser appetites and passions (Caliban), and commanding the offices of the imaginative genius of poetry (Ariel). He supposes Ferdinand to be Shakespeare's heir as a playwright (Fletcher). Lowell ('Among my Books') considers that the characters do not illustrate a class of persons, but belong to universal nature,—Imagination embodied in Prospero; Fancy in Ariel; brute understanding in Caliban, who, with his wits liquor-warmed, plots against his natural lord, the higher reason; Miranda, abstract Womanhood; Ferdinand, Youth, compelled to drudge till sacrifice of will and self win him the ideal in Miranda. Browning makes an incidentally interesting contribution to this subject by symbolizing in Caliban rudimentary theologizing man, in his poem 'Caliban.' (See Poet Lore, Vol. V, p. 562, November, 1893.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is 'The Tempest' an allegory? Is it in any sense an autobiographical play? Does its symbolism have much in common with that of modern symbolistic plays, such as Maeterlinck's 'Joyzelle,' for example? In what respects may it be said, do you think, as Maeterlinck himself has informed us, that 'Joyzelle' grew from 'The Tempest?'
THE WINTER'S TALE
CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH GREENE'S 'PANDOSTO' AND THE 'ALKESTIS' OF EURIPIDES
I
SHAKESPEARE'S INDEBTEDNESS TO GREENE
The story of 'Pandosto' falls into two distinct divisions; first, the story of Pandosto and Bellaria; second, the story of Dorastus and Fawnia. Compare each of these two stories with the two stories interwoven in the play, noting all the analogous passages and the use Shakespeare has made of them. (For Greene's 'Pandosto' or 'History of Dorastus and Fawnia' see 'Shakespeare's Library,' or pp. 118-125 and Notes in First Folio Edition.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Do Shakespeare's borrowed and additional archaisms and his confusion of names and places show carelessness? Is his continuation of the story merely a playwright's device to join the two parts of the plot and make a good stage piece end happily? (As to Coast of Bohemia see Poet Lore, April, 1894), also in "First Folio Edition," pp. 176-177.
II
THE RESEMBLANCES TO THE 'ALKESTIS' OF EURIPIDES
In Greene and in Shakespeare the King wishes the Queen's death because he is uncomfortable so long as she lives, and he prefers his comfort to aught else, taking it as his conjugal right and royal prerogative. (See ii. 3, 1 and 204.) The Queen, understanding this, says, "My life stands in the level of your dreams, which I'll lay down." To her she says, "can life be no commodity" when love, "the crown and comfort of her life," is gone. So Alkestis (see any translation of Euripides, in Bohn edition, literal prose translation, vol. i. p. 223) says she "was not willing to live bereft" of Admetos, therefore she did not spare herself to die for him, "though possessing the gifts of bloomy youth wherein" she "delighted." This point of correspondence may have occurred to Shakespeare and suggested his continuation of Greene's novel. Admetos' image of his wife, that he would have made by the cunning hands of artists, is possibly a prototype of the statue of the Queen in 'The Winter's Tale,' the piece "newly performed by that rare Italian master, Julio Romano." Compare also, Herakles' trial of Admetos with Paulina's trial of Leontes (v. i); and Herakles' restoration of the unknown Alkestis to her husband with Paulina's bringing the statue of the Queen to life.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Shakespeare's use of a striking incident from the 'Alkestis' too close not to have been suggested by it? Does it show his intention to portray in Hermione a new Alkestis?
III
SHAKESPEARE'S ORIGINALITY IN WORKING OVER HIS MATERIAL
Note Shakespeare's departures from Greene and their significance. Do they serve two ends,—make the play more effective for stage representation, make the characters stronger? Does he make Leontes more attractive than Greene does in the first part of the play? Does he make him worse or better than Pandosto in the second part? What is the sole trace left in Shakespeare of the father's guilty passion for his daughter? Garinter, in Greene, dies without any cause. See Shakespeare's explanation of this, also his use of the news of Mamillius' death to strike shame to the king's heart. Greene makes the king relent as soon as he hears the oracle. Contrast Shakespeare's conduct of the scene at this point.
Notice the difference in his treatment of the character of the cup-bearer. Does he make it his chief care to enhance the character of the Queen? Note the new characters introduced,—Paulina, Antigonus, Autolycus, the clown (in place of the wife in Greene). Conjecture any reason for his different names. The introduction of Autolycus makes the play more amusing on the stage, but is his part as well planned as Capnio's for leading up to the dénouement? Greene lets his mariners off alive after they set Fawnia afloat. Shakespeare wrecks his, and makes a bear eat Antigonus, to what end? What does Shakespeare gain by prolonging the life of Hermione?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Does Shakespeare's remodelling of Greene's story show chiefly a higher ideal than Greene's of womanhood and of love?
IV
THE ALKESTIS STORIES IN LITERATURE
The sacrifice of the Queen to ease her husband, and the final restoration, being the two main points of contact with Euripides' version of the story, compare with these the stories of Alkestis told by William Morris in 'The Earthly Paradise,'—'June'; 'The Love of Alcestis,' by Emma Lazarus, in 'Admetos,'—'Poems,' vol. i.; by Robert Browning in 'Balustion's Adventure;' by Longfellow in 'The Golden Legend.' See also articles in Poet-lore,—'The Alkestis of Euripides and of Browning,' July, 1890; 'Old and New Ideals of Womanhood'; 'The Iphigenia' and 'Alkestis Stories,' May, 1891; 'Longfellow's Golden Legend and its Analogues,' February, 1892. In comparing, note first general resemblances, then slighter points of resemblance and of difference.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is development in literature of the ideal of womanhood away from self-sacrifice and toward self-development?
Is woman's task for the future a reconciliation of them?
V
THE OUTCAST CHILD IN CULTURE-LORE AND FOLK-LORE
A few of the outcast children in culture-lore are Krishna, Zeus, Paris, Oedipus, King Arthur, Claribel's child in the 'Faerie Queene' (canto xii.), etc. For the stories in folk-lore, see the English Folk-lore Journal. For the solar theory of the origin of this story, see Cox, 'Mythology of the Aryan Nations.'
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Collier says that Shakespeare changed Greene's pretty description of turning Fawnia adrift in a boat because he had used much the same incident in "The Tempest." Does Shakespeare's new treatment of Greene's "pretty incident" add dramatic force and moral purpose to the play?
VI
CHARACTER STUDIES
1. PAULINA; LEONTES; HERMIONE
Note Paulina's likeness to Emilia in "Othello." Jealousy in Shakespeare: Resemblances in Leontes to Posthumus ("Cymbeline") and to Othello. "The jealousy of Leontes," says Dowden, "is not a detailed dramatic study like the love and jealousy of Othello. It is a gross madness, which mounts to the brain and turns his whole nature into unreasoning passion." Is Hermione more highly developed than others of Shakespeare's suspected wives,—Desdemona, Imogen? Likeness or superiority to Alkestis, Compare with Queen Katharine in 'Henry VIII.' Is she hard, having made her husband do penance for sixteen years? "Deep and even quick feeling never renders Hermione incapable of an admirable justice," writes Dowden, "nor deprives her of a true sense of pity for him who so gravely wrongs both her and himself."
2. THE YOUNG LOVERS
Notice the high and pure character of their love as shown in the facts that Florizel did not find it fitting to buy pedler's "knacks" for Perdita,—a trait not in Greene. Her independent and uncringing nature as shown in another little touch of Shakespeare (see IV. iv. 492-497). Compare these two lovers with Ferdinand and Miranda in "The Tempest."
3. THE ORIGINALITY OF SHAKESPEARE'S AUTOLYCUS
For suggestions see Poet-lore, April, 1891. ('Notes and News.') Compare the Hermes of the Homeric Hymn with the Autolycus and Sisyphos of mythology, also the folk-lore tales of the master-thief (Cox). To discuss the probable originality with Shakespeare of a conception which is one of the universal inheritances of the Aryan race is futile; the type existed, and Shakespeare's part was to make an individual of the type.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Leontes' jealousy too gross and unfounded to be likely?
Is Hermione, not hard, but slow to be satisfied, because her love is noble?
Is Mamillus not too precocious to be natural?
VII
A STUDY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLOT
Has Shakespeare welded the two parts of the story together in such a way as to unify the plot? Does Autolycus contribute anything to the development of the plot? How does it compare with "Julius Cæsar" or "Macbeth," for example, in the construction of the plot? Is the movement more rapid in the last half of the play or in the first? Note the expedient introduced by Shakespeare to bridge over the lapse of time between the first part and the last part; compare with other examples of the same sort in Shakespeare.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Does the dramatic interest of 'The Winter's Tale' suffer because the plot is of less importance than the incidents and characters.
VIII
SHAKESPEARE'S WORKMANSHIP IN "THE WINTER'S TALE"
The versification is that of Shakespeare's latest group of plays. Dowden says, "No five-measure lines are rhymed and run on lines, and double endings are numerous." Give examples of the construction of the lines from "Love's Labour's Lost" as an earlier play, "Merchant of Venice" as a riper play. It has been said that the difficulties of style in the play are accounted for by the endeavor of the author to reflect the changing moods of Leontes. Compare with Prospero's diction and construction in "The Tempest." Give examples of these.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does the lawlessness of poetic workmanship in "The Winter's Tale," together with the looseness of the dramatic construction, show a deterioration from the ripe power of Shakespeare's middle period, or that practised artistic mastery which is free from art by means of perfect art?
IX
PERDITA'S GARDEN
The flower-imagery of "The Winter's Tale" compared with other
flower-scenes in Shakespeare,—in "A Midsommer Nights Dreame" and
"Hamlet." The classic and folk-lore allusions. The pastoral element in
"As you Like It" and "Winter's Tale."
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
The rustic scenes have little bearing on the play; are they necessary to Shakespeare's art in order to throw a clear light on the character of his protagonists?
X
THE ETHICS OF "THE WINTER'S TALE"
"The Winter's Tale" gives examples of meritorious actions losing their virtue with the progress of ideas; for example, the civic virtue, allegiance to the king, is what Leontes depends upon in his talk with Camillo, with Antigonus, and the other lords. Note Camillo's reason for not poisoning Polixenes to order,—that it is risky to kill a king even at command of a king. That such a reason would be considered small moral support to-day appears, for example, in the indignation or amusement expressed in the newspapers on the German Emperor's address to his army on the soldier's duty of obedience. In Shakespeare's day a king had taken matters in his own hands in the trial of his wife, much as Leontes did (see "Henry VIII".). The moral significance of Hermione's patience under accusation appears in the long reparation she requires. Paulina is made to speak for her during her seclusion.
What are the "secret purposes" which Shakespeare makes her subserve? Observe that, if the fulfilment of the oracle and the restoration of the child were all Paulina anticipates, there would be no use in her remonstrances against a second marriage and in her goading the king to remorse.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does Shakespeare's ideal of love and constancy, as revealed in 'The Winter's Tale,' imply that second marriages are offences against the first. Has the objection Paulina makes to his re-marriage such a cause or is it a necessity of the plot?
Does the way of telling "The Winter's Tale" indicate the passing away of aristocratic and the formation of democratic ideals, and the dawning change in the status both of woman and the commoner?