Sidelights on Negro Soldiers

No organization ever employed a greater number of workers to serve men without cost than did the Young Men’s Christian Association during the Great War. Millions of dollars given by the American people were spent in carrying out its program of service. Wherever there were American soldiers, in the camps at home, at the base ports, on the battle front, in leave areas, or behind the lines in France, there they were followed and served by the Y. M. C. A. Some of the workers even followed the troops “over the top,” sacrificing life itself in their endeavor to give comfort and cheer to the men.

Negro soldiers shared in the “Y” service both at home and in France. At first they were somewhat overlooked, but through the efforts of Dr. Jesse E. Moorland and his associates provision was made for them. In the National Army cantonments large “Y” huts with six secretaries were maintained,—building, business, religious, educational, physical, and social secretaries,—each of whom developed his particular line of work. Sometimes a second building or tent was used. The secretaries met in the general Y. M. C. A. conferences held weekly with the camp secretary, who usually co-operated in every possible way.

The effectiveness of the work depended largely upon the efficiency and ability of the building secretary to co-operate with his staff and the camp officials. Often these secretaries not only effectively supervised the work in their buildings, but they also watched the morale of the soldiers and held conferences with commanding officers for the purpose of improving unsatisfactory conditions. The business secretary conducted the stamp and money order business. This alone in some camps amounted to sums ranging from $150 to $200 a day. Lectures were given to the men on the value of saving and they often bore fruit. At Camp Dodge $10,000 was sent home by the soldiers in one month. The educational secretary worked mainly to reach the men who could not read or write. In Camp Dodge, where perhaps the most successful work was done, 2300 Negro soldiers learned to read and write and to do simple work in arithmetic and drawing, using implements of warfare as models. A business course and instruction in French were offered to those men who had sufficient education.

Colonel Bush, who was in charge of the educational work at Camp Dodge, ordered all illiterate men to attend school, and the rule made by many company commanders that every man must sign his name before drawing his pay, served as a great incentive to study. This school for Negro soldiers in the 366th Regiment was well organized, with the educational secretary, George H. Fortner, as superintendent. Each company represented a part of the school, with a lieutenant as head, and non-commissioned officers, who did the teaching, as assistants. For every fourteen men a teacher was furnished, and there were ample materials. Educational lectures in the different camps were also appreciated, as well as the circulation of books. Naturally the success of all such work as this depended primarily on the initiative of the secretary and his co-operation with the camp authorities.

The physical secretary’s work was to promote athletics, chiefly games, boxing and wrestling. In camps where there were combatant units the athletic officers and the physical secretaries co-operated, and there the best organizations were found. In non-combatant units effective athletic work was seldom found, partly because of the nature of their organization. However, in some of these, teams were organized, and the secretaries were able at times to get outside agencies to provide equipment. The women of Cuthbert, Ga., gave basket ball equipment for two teams and a shooting gallery costing $44. As a result there was organized a team which played Morehouse College and the Columbus Y. M. C. A.

The work of the social secretary was of great importance. He it was who furnished relaxation and entertainment after the arduous tasks of the day. Moving pictures, given from two to five times a week; programs, consisting of singing, dancing, stunts, and recitations, by talent in cantonment cities or by company entertainers; concerts, by bands or great singers; and addresses by famous speakers, filled the “Y,” even the windows and rafters, with men at night. Of such service no group was more appreciative than the Negro soldiers. Members of the race in cantonment cities co-operated splendidly, and schools sometimes sent quartets or orchestras. Sometimes there were Christmas trees hung with presents ranging from tooth brushes to wrist watches, and with each present was a bag of popcorn and a personal letter. On one occasion when more than a hundred white soldiers were present at such a festivity, they also received presents. Many of the entertainers on the “Y” circuit were also enjoyed by the men, though too often in some camps their programs happened to be given in every building except the one attended by the Negro soldiers.

The religious secretaries were usually ministers of considerable experience. Negro soldiers had high regard for things religious. Bible classes were conducted every Sunday morning, and were followed by preaching, sometimes by local ministers. Weekly Bible classes or prayer meetings were also held, and sometimes “sings” or testimonial meetings. At these meetings the soldiers often took a stand for Christ, and in such cases the secretary wrote personal letters to their families, informing them of the fact and asking them to write letters of encouragement. The many personal interviews which these secretaries had with the soldiers gave them some of the best opportunities of rendering service.

In the smaller camps things were not always as well appointed as in the larger ones. No big program could be carried out, though religious and sometimes educational work was conducted. In the South, moreover, the colored secretaries most frequently did not attend the general “Y” conferences. In spite of all discouraging circumstances, however, the development of the work was rapid. What was done at Camp Hill, Newport News, Va., shows what was possible after an unpromising beginning. In October, 1917, two Hampton students, W. D. Elam and E. M. Mitchell, went to serve 4500 men, using an army tent for the work. The tent was destroyed in a storm and was replaced by a smaller one, 16 by 16, in which three men lived and where there were, in addition, a stove, a victrola, and a piano. Stamps and stationery were handled, and small meetings held. This was the extent of the facilities in one of the coldest winters Virginians had ever seen. In the early spring, however, a barrack was secured through the aid of the officers, and in April a large “Y” building was dedicated with a full staff of secretaries and all necessary equipment. Here, as elsewhere, the soldiers were served in numberless ways; and when the time came to go to France, there was chocolate or lemonade, with sandwiches, and the secretaries accompanied the men to the port of embarkation, where they separated from each with a touching farewell and a most fervent “God bless you.”

IN FRANCE

As one traveled among the soldiers in France he saw in almost every camp the Y. M. C. A. hut or tent. There were 7850 “Y” workers overseas, 1350 of whom were women. Of this large number 87 were Negroes and 19, women of the race. Only three of these Negro women were in France during the actual fighting, and not until the spring of 1919 did others sail. At the head of the colored secretaries was Dr. John Hope, president of Morehouse College, Atlanta, Ga., who was stationed at the “Y” headquarters in Paris, where he helped to solve many problems regarding the work. Traveling over France, he visited many units of troops, saw their needs, and tried to meet them. There were hardly ever more than 75 Negro secretaries in France at one time, and these were scattered among nearly 200,000 Negro soldiers. They served with the fighting units, with the troops in the service of supplies, and in the leave areas. The fighting units of Negro soldiers were the 92nd and 93rd Divisions, the latter comprising four regiments brigaded with the French. It was in these units that the secretaries won deserved praise for their service and courage. Airplane raids, bombardments, and bursting gas shells did not slacken their ardor to follow the men wherever they went.

H. E. Caldwell, with the 369th Regiment, was under shell fire longer than any other Negro secretary. Matthew W. Bullock and Dr. B. N. Murrell followed the 369th into the thickest of the fight and were with it when it led the allied armies to the banks of the Rhine, a position of honor accorded it because of its excellent service in the trenches. Of Mr. Bullock it was said that when the fight was hardest and the soldiers were wounded and dying, he was ever with his men encouraging them to press forward to victory. Of Dr. Murrell we shall speak again. T. C. Cook, of the 371st Regiment, was cited in orders for his bravery in rescuing two wounded soldiers exposed in pouring rain and shell fire. He succeeded in moving them to a narrow dug-out that was soon afterwards filled with poisonous gas. In attempting to escape, he left the dug-out only to fall unconscious in the open. On that morning of the battle officers and men had entrusted to his care $35,000 of their savings, which he carried on his back as he helped the wounded. When he regained consciousness in a hospital behind the lines, he found that the money had disappeared, but his anxiety was relieved when he was informed that the colored sergeant-major of the regiment, whom he had requested to guard the money in case of accident to himself, had forwarded it to the Paris office of the Y. M. C. A. and that every cent had been safely delivered. Of Secretary James G. Wiley of the 92nd Division Lt. Col. A. E. Deitsch wrote: “During the occupancy of the Marbache sector, he established an Association in the town of Atton which was bombarded daily. Even when the German bombardment tore the roof from the building and all civilians had left the vicinity, only the soldiers necessary for the relaying of supplies and ammunition to the front lines remaining, this man held on and served the soldiers faithfully.”

Sometimes the Negro secretary served not only the men in one camp but in several, even covering an area containing as many as 50,000 soldiers. Such a worker was J. E. Saddler, who was engaged in the Chaumont region. The labor battalions which he served worked on the roads, at bakeries, rail heads and ammunition dumps, often working both day and night, one man doing two men’s work. At first Mr. Saddler went on foot, walking 30 kilometers a day, carrying all the supplies he could, and distributing them to groups of men doing road work. Then he secured a motorcycle, and when that was completely used up he obtained a Ford, with the aid of which he could reach more men. Sometimes he organized schools, offering prizes to induce the men to learn to write. Occasionally he conducted spelling bees, taking the words from the Stars and Stripes. He was not a preacher, but some Sundays he held as many as seven services. Dr. Murrell served in the Verdun region where thousands of men were engaged in salvaging and in burying the American dead. He, like Mr. Saddler, traveled about in a truck with supplies. At Romagne, the site of the Argonne cemetery, he and his staff did excellent work. Two huts were constructed from sheet iron taken from German dug-outs. At night these were so crowded that one could hardly move about in them. The men wrote letters, played games, or gathered around the piano; they also had daily shows, athletic contests, and the canteen was excellent. All such service was of great value in building up the morale of the men and in relieving them from the depressing effects of the grewsome work they were called on to perform. At Liffol-le-Grand, M. R. Atwell had a hut which was attractively whitewashed and painted inside. Pictures of Negro officers and nurses were on the walls, and generally the work ranked with the most efficient in France.

After the Armistice a splendid piece of work was done for the soldiers at Issurtille by W. W. Waitneight, a white secretary, who in the beginning was opposed to working with colored men. In the early days of the camp these soldiers were not permitted to visit the “Y” buildings, and no other place of recreation was provided for them. Finally a captain, moved by the situation, asked for volunteers to help erect a building. The “Y” furnished the lumber, some of the engineer regiments supplied foremen, and the soldiers, including forty mechanics, undertook to do the work. The site selected was in a bottom where the entire camp drained, and at times the water was six inches deep on the floor. In such an environment there was little enthusiasm on the part of white secretaries to undertake the work; but the one who did found the greater joy in the hearty appreciation of the men. Two thousand were in nightly attendance, and from three thousand to thirty-five hundred were served daily in the “Y” and in the wet canteen. The work developed until it became the most popular in the camp, and the secretary who at first doubted, learned to love the men and to work untiringly for them. At Gierve, a white Baptist minister, Mr. Rankin, served Negro soldiers in a spacious and well equipped hut, and he also endeared himself to the men.

At the biggest base ports in France—Bordeaux, St. Nazaire, and Brest—the Y. M. C. A. did a wonderful work. For months there were 20,000 Negro soldiers at Bordeaux alone, doing stevedore work. Some of the first colored secretaries sent to France went to this city during the period of active fighting. They and the army officers did not work harmoniously together, and after some stormy days they were ordered to Paris with recommendations to Y. M. C. A. headquarters that they be sent to America. After investigation, however, they were sent to other fields of labor, but meanwhile Negro secretaries in New York, about to sail for France, were detained for months. The situation was finally adjusted and two other men, B. F. Seldon and A. W. Shockley, who went to Bordeaux, successfully co-operated with the officers and worked among the white as well as the colored soldiers. At St. Sulpice Mr. Seldon had charge of a hut that was well equipped, and Mr. Shockley conducted a canteen that was said to be one of the cleanest in France. Thomas Clayton, another secretary in the Bordeaux area, conducted schools for 600 illiterate men. Twenty-seven men were sent from the section to the universities in France, and thirty were sent to the agricultural department at Bonn. At Anconia, also in this area, a big hut was in charge of J. M. Price, a white secretary who served with colored troops from the beginning. This hut had an auditorium seating 2000, a spacious sitting-room, a good library, and a large room for games. Two shows daily were given the 10,000 men. They were encouraged to save, and in one month $22,000 was sent to the States. Mr. Price was a Southern man, but he was so much admired by the men and he made such a favorable impression on the commanding officers that, when the troops sailed for America, he was, against the rules of the Y. M. C. A., allowed to sail with the men he had served.

The “Y” at St. Nazaire did one of the biggest pieces of work seen anywhere in France. There were at times more than 50,000 Negro soldiers at this base. The first colored secretary sent to France, Franklin W. Nichols, worked here and had the honor of building the first hut erected for Negro stevedores. Other pioneers were Rev. Leroy Ferguson, J. O. Wright, William Stevenson, James H. Robinson, R. E. Williams, and the three canteen workers who reached France before the Armistice, Mrs. Helen Curtis, Mrs. Addie W. Hunton, and Miss Kathryn Johnson. These workers left splendid records of achievement. During the last months at St. Nazaire, Negro soldiers were served in four Y. M. C. A. buildings operated by Negro secretaries and also in some conducted by white secretaries. The huts of the former were located at Camps Dodge, Guthrie, Montoir, Lusitania, and Camp I. That at Lusitania was the largest; it had an auditorium seating 1800. The commanding officers co-operated gladly, and the divisional secretaries in the area, especially M. B. Wallace, showed fine spirit in helping to make the work a success.

During the days of fighting and immediately after the Armistice, Negro soldiers at Brest related stories of discrimination by the “Y” and of its refusal to serve them. In the spring of 1919, however, the camp commander and the divisional secretary declared that the men should have a “fifty-fifty” deal. The organization conducted altogether fifteen huts in Camp Pontenazen, one in Camp President Lincoln, and a small room at the sorting yard. “Soldiers’ Rest” at Camp Pontenazen was especially set aside for the Negro soldiers, though all soldiers were served there. In March, 1919, B. F. Lee was sent to work in this hut. He later became general secretary for the building, and four canteen workers helped in the last days. In all the other huts at Pontenazen Negro soldiers were also served. While some canteen women were not enthusiastic about assisting them, the divisional secretary, a Tennesseean, tried to give all men equal service, and one secretary who refused to serve the Negroes was sent back to America. At Camp President Lincoln Secretaries Fritz Cansler and Nelson were stationed and did some very effective educational work. After prayer meetings movies were advertised and these always meant a full house. At the sorting yard, located on the docks at Brest, a group of Negro soldiers ran a kitchen where embarking soldiers were fed and where stevedores working on the docks got one meal to prevent the necessity of returning to camp; they also had a secretary. In the city of Brest Negro soldiers were served at both the Y. M. C. A. restaurant and the big cafeteria, and generally the improvement in the conditions at this base accounted for a more favorable impression than that borne away from some other places.

There were many other instances of devoted service. “Y” work was by no means easy. Many army officers looked upon any secretary with disfavor. On the other hand, the secretaries themselves were not always infallible, nor were their words and actions unerringly discreet.

Hundreds of entertainers who went overseas visited the soldiers in all branches of the service. Among these there were no theatrical people of color, nor any of the leading singers of the race. However, during the last months there was a religious entertaining unit composed of Rev. H. H. Proctor, who spoke, J. E. Blanton, song leader, and Miss Helen Hagan, a noted pianist. These helpers carried cheer wherever they went.

The few Negro women who went to France as canteen workers exerted a great influence for good. While many officers and secretaries were opposed to having women serve the men, their presence was like the calming of a great storm. They built up the morale instantly, as was noted in every camp to which they were sent. Once or twice, as when Mrs. Hunton first appeared at St. Nazaire, some of the men cried for joy. The men loved, protected, and honored these workers for what they represented, and one of them said that she had to go to France to be truly proud of the fact that she was a Negro woman.

The work of the canteen women received probably the greatest praise in the leave areas. This work was conducted in the Department of Savoie, among beautiful mountains and lakes conducive to rest and relaxation; and Chambéry, Challes les Eaux, and Aix les Bains were the leading cities. Aix les Bains is noted for its baths, used by the Romans and visited by tourists from all over the world. Chambéry, used as headquarters, is an educational center with colleges and art museums. On the outskirts of the city overlooking the valley below is the home of Jean Jacques Rousseau; and from there one might view also the cross of Nivolet and a chain of snow-capped Alps. Seven miles away is the famous Pass where Hannibal with his army crossed the Alps. To this day the road said to have been built by him is in perfect condition. To such an environment the Negro soldiers came, and they were welcomed by the citizens as men who had helped to save their country. They stood in the Pass, viewed Lake Bourget below, and the Italian Alps in the distance. Here also it was that the secretaries, under the direction of William Stevenson and Mrs. Curtis, did some of the best work in France.

Other places of interest visited by the soldiers were the St. Bernard’s Pass, Mt. Revard, and the Church of the Black Madonna. The last place was the most interesting of all because of its unusual sight. Inside the church is a small figure of the Madonna with a black child in her arms. The robes are of gold studded with diamonds, and pictures, crutches, canes and other tokens of thanks have been left here by people who have been blessed and healed. Once when the town was destroyed by a mountain slide, only the church stood, and the presence of the Madonna was thought by the people to be responsible for the miraculous escape. Here the Negro soldiers were more than welcome and the keepers felt honored by their visits.

Altogether more than twenty thousand soldiers visited this leave area, coming from all parts of France. They were selected from the various organizations in the A. E. F. and sent for periods of from seven to fourteen days. Before they arrived some unpleasant propaganda was spread about them, but they made a highly favorable impression. The “Y” headquarters was a spacious building, splendidly equipped. There were band concerts, and on Sunday afternoons there were refreshments in the beautiful garden, with representative people of the vicinity assisting in the serving. Because of the good conduct of the men and the success of the secretaries in establishing such fine relations between citizens and soldiers, the Governor of Savoie gave a farewell reception, including a public meeting in a theatre and an entertainment in his own home afterwards; and letters were written by the mayors of all three towns and by leading citizens to praise the work and to express regret at its closing.

While thousands of soldiers visited the leave areas, tens of thousands went to see Paris the Beautiful. Naturally officers and welfare workers as well as the men in the ranks desired especially to see this great city before returning to America. Ordinarily three-day leaves were granted, and each day in the spring of 1919 brought hundreds of soldiers to the city. In order that the limited time might mean as much as possible to the men, the Y. M. C. A. organized wonderful sight-seeing programs, including all the famous places of historic interest. With every party there were efficient guides, and the Negro soldiers, like all the others, appreciated fully and thoroughly enjoyed the never-to-be-forgotten experience.

CRITICISM OF THE “Y”

The work of the Y. M. C. A. in American camps was so conducted that it met with comparatively little criticism. Headquarters could be easily reached for the adjustment of any question arising over the Negro, and during the war public sentiment was more decidedly against discrimination than in peace time. Such matters as arose generally grew out of the attitude or action of individual wearers of the red triangle. At Camp Greene, Charlotte, N. C., for instance, there were 10,000 Negro soldiers. Five “Y” buildings in the camp were located in areas allotted to these men, but in no case were they allowed to use the buildings except possibly for stamps and paper. A sign over one read “This building is for white men only,” and the secretary placed outside the building a table that colored men might use in writing letters. In Camp Lee, Petersburg, Va., a prayer meeting was conducted in an area where Negro soldiers were located, but a soldier with a rifle on his shoulder was doing guard duty, pacing in a circle around the group to see that no Negroes attended. The comments made by the Negro soldiers under the circumstances were interesting. In some camps the soldiers of both races used the same building, playing games together, attending the same picture shows, sometimes playing in the same orchestra, and even writing letters for one another. Such friendly contact was looked upon with disfavor by some secretaries, and they introduced discriminatory measures, which naturally led to friction.

It was from overseas, however, that the severest criticism of the organization came. During the spring of 1919, in every shipment of soldiers that landed on American shores there were those who denounced the “Y” for something it had or had not done. The Negro soldiers did their share of the criticising in spite of the fact that the organization had done much to help them. Why, then, did they criticise it?

First of all, the “Y” appeared to have no definite policy regarding Negro soldiers in France. Endeavor was left mainly in the hands of divisional or regional directors, and these men inaugurated such policies as they thought best, and a most careful investigation indicates that some secretaries resorted to discrimination and segregation more than the men in any other organization and even more than the army with its military caste. Sometimes such an attitude was assumed even by ministers of the gospel. The general situation was described, very accurately, by one regional secretary as follows: “About 25 per cent of the white secretaries served the colored soldiers gladly, about 25 per cent served them half-heartedly, and about 50 per cent either refused to serve them or made them feel they were not wanted.” When soldiers were building the Pershing Stadium for the allied games, the “Y” served for months all the men in the order in which they appeared for service. One day a young Southern woman was sent out as a canteen worker. The soldiers lined up as formerly. All went well until a colored soldier in the line was reached. The young woman asked him to get out of the line. He said he was an American soldier and would not get out of the line. Thereupon she closed the canteen. A noted divine from Atlanta, Ga., was for a time in charge of one of the three-day conferences for new secretaries in France. At the close of one of the sessions a colored canteen worker told him she had enjoyed the discussion. “I am glad you enjoyed it,” he said, “but we don’t mix in the States and you must not expect to here.” All such incidents could be multiplied hundreds of times, and because of them there grew up in the hearts of the Negro soldiers a contempt for the general organization that made such things possible.

An interesting sidelight was afforded by the fate of what was known as the “Honey Bee Club.” A Negro soldier who was sentenced to death, just a few days before his execution asked a “Y” secretary at Brest to come and pray with him. After four days of struggle with the soldier and himself, the secretary felt that he too was changed and should work in some large way for the good of the Negro men. He began with prayer meetings among small groups that had been somewhat neglected, and at one such meeting he told the story of the Honey Bee that was busy and successful and another about birds that preyed on the undesirable things of the world. Using with telling effect the lesson drawn from the experience of the soldier who paid with his life for the undesirable, he asked, “How many of you would like to be the Honey Bee?” All responded with raised hands. Soon afterwards he was given permission by the Paris office to devote all his time to the organization of Honey Bee clubs. When it became known, however, that membership was to be limited to Negro soldiers, opposition developed. The colored men felt that if the club was capable of doing so much for them, white soldiers in France should not be denied a share in its blessings. The original idea was undoubtedly to help the Negro soldier in France, but the method by which the idea was developed did not meet with approval, and accordingly, in most cases, it was either opposed or treated with indifference.

In spite of all the criticism, however, the fact remains that the Young Men’s Christian Association did more for the recreation, entertainment, and educational development of Negro soldiers than any other welfare organization in the course of the war. Through its agency thousands of men learned to read and write. Moreover, it is to be remembered that it was the “Y” that sent Negro welfare workers to France, including nineteen women for canteen work, while other organizations faltered. Such effort did not materialize without hard work on the part of the Negro people and their friends. However, it did materialize, and the Negro workers were a credit both to the organization and to their race. In a talk to a number of them at a banquet in Paris, E. C. Carter, head of the Y. M. C. A. overseas, said in summing up their work: “No group of secretaries has been more successful, nor has any work been on a higher level. I have been impressed most by your spirit. Sometimes you have met with difficulties and have been insulted by workers with the red triangle on their arms, but through it all you have shown the spirit of true greatness as did the Master.”

During the World War not only the Y. M. C. A. but other leading religious and social organizations in America aided the War Department in providing for the welfare of the soldiers, both inside and outside the camps. We may now consider briefly the Salvation Army, the Knights of Columbus, the large agencies within the army itself, passing on to War Camp Community Service, the Red Cross, and also to some consideration of what was done by the Negro Church and the Federal Council of Churches.

SALVATION ARMY

The Salvation Army did little or no work for Negro soldiers in American camps, but when the men returned from France they spoke about the service the organization had rendered with an appreciation akin to reverence. This agency did not have great buildings and hundreds of workers distributed throughout the camps, but it did have here and there faithful representatives imbued with the spirit of service. One of its largest huts was at St. Nazaire, and here the relation between men of different races was of the most cordial sort. The Salvation Army workers stated that on no occasion had there been any trouble, and this example well illustrates their spirit and it explains the deep appreciation that the Negro soldiers had for their organization.

KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS

The Knights of Columbus erected their first building for Negro soldiers at Camp Funston, Kan. This was opened on December 1, 1917, with Clarence Guillot as executive secretary and two assistants. Religious services were conducted every Sunday for the four hundred Catholics in the camp, with communion every Sunday morning. One of the two chaplains was always available for consultation, there were excellent library facilities, and also special effort for recreation. In Camps Taylor, Dodge, Meade, and Beauregard (at Alexandria, La.) buildings were also provided. At Camps Dodge and Beauregard white secretaries were in charge, while at Taylor and Meade Negro secretaries conducted the work. The building at Dodge was visited by both white and colored soldiers, and the kindliest feeling was maintained. At Beauregard a mess hall was renovated and attractively furnished for the large Catholic element there. The building at Camp Taylor, which was beautifully furnished and adequately equipped, was first used by white soldiers, but when they left the camp and Negro soldiers were moved into the area, it was turned over to them. At Meade there was a small but attractive portable building. The work was similar to that at Camp Funston. Not all secretaries were in sympathy with the liberal policy that seemed to be intended by the organization, but those who were not were sometimes transferred.

The Knights of Columbus had a small building for Negro soldiers at Tours, and there was also special provision at Romagne, where the soldiers were reburying the dead. After a tent was erected and supplied with tobacco, chocolate, gum, packages of cakes, stationery, and other such things, the secretary came to the Y. M. C. A. hut and addressed the soldiers, informing them that the K. C. tent had been erected and that to it they were very welcome. The next morning a hundred white and colored soldiers were in line at it receiving supplies. When the camp commander instituted a policy of segregation, the K. C. was compelled to adopt it or leave camp. It chose the former course and put up signs accordingly. When these signs appeared some of the soldiers pulled them off and pulled down the tent, and there was a riot.

The Knights of Columbus were criticised for the procedure at Romagne, which was contrary to the general belief as to the policy of the organization. As has been shown, however, while only a small number of Negro secretaries were employed and in only a few camps was there any special effort to serve Negro soldiers, they were generally admitted to K. C. buildings and in general the organization impressed them by its catholicity of spirit.

AGENCIES IN THE ARMY

In addition to the work of the welfare organizations in the camps, the Army also contributed something to the pleasure of the soldiers by providing for athletics and socials. Holidays were usually given on Wednesdays, Saturday afternoons, and Sundays, though in the non-combatant units these were not always observed. In the combatant units where athletic officers were selected, there was competition in baseball, basket ball, or football, and occasionally a track meet was held. For the most part, however, organized effort in athletics was hardly ever successfully carried out among Negro soldiers, largely because of the failure of the officers to realize the need. There were, however, exceptions. An enviable record was made by the stevedore team at Camp Alexander, Newport News, which defeated all the teams, white or colored, in the various camps on the lower peninsula of Virginia. One of the best examples of athletic competition in non-combatant units was seen in the depot brigades at Camp Gordon, Atlanta, Ga. Three fields were provided for the men and the teams were well equipped by their organizations with suits and materials. During the baseball season two scheduled games were played each week. The two battalions represented, which formed and marched to the field, always furnished an enthusiastic crowd. Games were also played with the colleges and the Federal Prison team in Atlanta, and there was a big field and track meet. They also had representation in the Camp Gordon meet. In another camp a regimental cross-country run of two miles was held. One hundred and thirty-five men entered and one hundred and twenty-six finished. Boxing was also a source of recreation, and in some camps men were selected for a special class. These later became instructors. Boxing contests and exhibitions were held each week, and in some of the stevedore regiments “battles royal” were conducted. Wrestling was also introduced, but it was not as popular as boxing and did not receive much encouragement.

In Western and Southern camps only a small number of Negro soldiers frequented the Liberty theatres and Y. M. C. A. auditoriums. In the South they were not always permitted to attend. In some places they built their own amusement houses and furnished their own entertainment, as at Camp Travis, Texas. Here there was a minstrel troupe composed of exceptional talent, most of the men having been stars in the profession before being drafted into the army. They gave weekly shows in the camp, and during the warm weather they played in an open air theatre on the hillside, with thousands of white and Negro soldiers attending. They also played in the city theatre in San Antonio, as well as elsewhere in Texas; and they were accompanied by a forty-piece band which was considered the finest in the camp. One tangible result of the work of these entertainers was the erection of a beautiful recreation house at a cost of $6000 with funds raised entirely by their work.

Two other notable examples where provision was made for the recreation and entertainment of Negro soldiers were found in the 92nd Division. One was at Camp Funston and the other at Camp Upton. The theatre at Camp Funston was first planned for the soldiers of the 89th Division, who already had three theatres and a moving-picture show. General Ballou accordingly used his influence to have the new one erected for the use of the headquarters section of the 92nd Division, and the money for the material was furnished by the Government. The soldiers furnished the labor, with the exception of a foreman, an expert carpenter, and some interior finishers. The building was wired by a master electrician, who was drafted from St. Louis; it seated more than 2500; and it was the most beautiful and conveniently arranged theatre seen in the camps. The “Buffalo” auditorium at Camp Upton was built by the soldiers of the 367th Regiment, with the assistance of friends. It was designed for both instruction and recreation. The total cost was $40,000. Of this amount the officers and men subscribed more than $14,000, and they conducted a campaign to raise the balance in New York City. Within the building there was everything from religious services and lectures to preliminary instruction in the use of the bayonet, moving pictures and vaudeville. This auditorium was a great factor in building up the fine esprit de corps of the “Buffalo” regiment; and the three outstanding examples which we have recorded are representative of what was done with the co-operation of officers in the different camps for the recreation and entertainment of the Negro soldiers.

NEGRO CHAPLAINS

It mattered not how ignorant a Negro soldier was, or how difficult his life had been, he believed in God and in the efficacy of prayer. There was something about his religion that was satisfying and genuine, and no one could attend his services and hear him sing and pray without being touched. In writing to his family and friends he usually asked for their prayers. “Tell them all to pray for me and that I am trusting in the Lord,” said one in dictating a letter, and another: “Tell them not to worry about me now. I am happy and contented. I have prayed constantly and have now no fear of death. Whatever happens will be all right. Tell them to pray for me.” On one Sunday night at Camp Jackson several white soldiers came into one of the religious services at the colored “Y,” and they joined heartily in the singing. After the meeting they told the secretary that they were leaving for France the next morning and had come to the meeting in order to get a little nearer to God.

Such being the general situation, importance attached to the man who became the religious guide in time of stress. The average minister was hardly adapted to the work of chaplain, because his experience had not prepared him to have an understanding and appreciation of the problems of the men in the new situation. Some who were fitted were pastors of leading churches and in most cases it was impossible for them to get a leave of absence. Besides the difficulty of securing competent men, there was also opposition on the part of many officers to having Negro chaplains in their organizations. When the efforts of the Federal Council of Churches resulted in increasing the number, they found difficulty in serving the Negro men because several of them were kept in one camp and often in one organization. At Camp Meade, for instance, at one time there were three Negro chaplains in the 1st Development Battalion. When this battalion was disbanded in December, 1918, two of the chaplains were assigned to the 4th Battalion, where there were already one Negro and two white chaplains. At Camp Travis three Negro chaplains were found serving one organization, and at both Camps Taylor and Sherman there were several chaplains with a small number of soldiers. At the same time there were throughout the South Negro organizations without any chaplain at all, except a machine-gun group at Camp Hancock and a part of the 157th Development Battalion at Camp McClellan, which units were served respectively by a white and a colored chaplain.

The work of the chaplains who remained in the States consisted in conducting religious services and in educational work, visiting the sick in the hospitals, aiding the soldiers in securing their allotments and allowances, and often adjusting difficulties. A number of white chaplains served Negro soldiers, especially in the labor organizations and in one instance in a fighting unit, the 371st Infantry. Many of these men were sincere and conscientious, yet they were not able to influence the men to any great extent. One said that he felt the soldiers would rather have one of their own race for a religious leader. At first the soldiers would not go to him with their difficulties, but as he worked among them they came to have more confidence in him, and a few began to seek his aid in the matter of securing their allotments and allowances. His most effective work, however, was in conducting schools for the illiterate. In general it was not impossible for the white chaplain to enter into the life of the Negro soldier, if he dealt with him as man to man and was a living example of his teachings.

To be a Negro, however, was by no means the only requisite of a successful chaplain for Negro troops. Personality and moral force also counted. Because care was not exercised at first in the selections for Negro soldiers, a great opportunity was lost to serve them in their darkest hours, when both physical and moral dangers surrounded them. Some workers, however, won the hearty commendation of both officers and men. Whether in America or in France, they gave of themselves freely for their comrades. Such a man was Allen O. Newman of the 366th Infantry. Soon after joining his regiment he won his way to the hearts of the men by his genuine appreciation of their difficulties. When they were in training at Camp Dodge he became one of them. He ate with some company daily and afterwards gave a short talk on patriotism or morality. He was also regimental song leader. A chorus of two hundred and fifty men that he developed gave several concerts in the city of Des Moines. Chaplain Newman accompanied his regiment through France, and in the front line trenches he visited and comforted them constantly. Chaplain H. M. Collins, who served the stevedore organizations at Camp Williams, Issurtille, was a genuine “big brother” to his men. The commander, in speaking of his work, said that he had been the greatest factor in helping to better conditions in the camp. He remained until the last Negro soldier started for America. Altogether the sixty Negro chaplains who served during the war made a real contribution in building up the morale, the morality, and the loyalty of the Negro soldier.

BASE HOSPITALS

In the National Army cantonments there were at times from 40,000 to 60,000 men. As a part of the equipment of these camps great base hospitals were erected and supplied with the most modern improvements. Negro soldiers shared with others the blessings of wonderful discoveries in surgery and preventive medicine. Even in camps where living conditions were unsatisfactory, in the base hospitals they were well treated. Sometimes, as at Camp McClellan at Anniston, there was such a marked difference within the hospital from the general situation in the camp, that the men asked questions in their wonderment. Of course there were exceptions, but whether in the North, the South, the East, or the West, there was usually to be found among the doctors and nurses the spirit of the Great Physician and the desire to heal all men.

RED CROSS. NEGRO NURSES

When American men were called to service, women throughout the country enrolled as Red Cross members and worked for the organization in various ways, rendering every service that would make life more comfortable for the soldiers. They not only served as nurses but also as canteen workers; and they knitted, sewed, and made bandages. Hundreds of qualified and registered Negro nurses gladly offered themselves for service. The Red Cross appeared to be willing to use these nurses and at times greatly needed them, but for some reason it was difficult for them actually to enroll for service. Considerable correspondence with reference to the matter passed through the office of the Special Assistant to the Secretary of War, and at last, after the Armistice was signed, some Negro nurses served at Camps Grant and Sherman. The first five called by the Red Cross were on duty in Washington at the time, but on two hours’ notice they were traveling to Camp Stuart, Newport News, where they were put on duty in the base hospital to serve four weeks as a trial. They had every consideration and courtesy, and the commanding officer said of them that he had never had more competent nurses and that their conduct was above reproach. After this trial at Newport News, four more were added and all were sent to the base hospital at Camp Sherman, where they were provided with a modern home. They worked in the wards on both day and night duty with the white nurses and served all the soldiers, and because of their efficiency they won the respect of all. Colored nurses were assigned to Camp Grant where they made a similar record.

Important in this general connection is the matter of the general relation of Negro women throughout the country to Red Cross work. In the North and West they joined the organization and worked in more or less complete harmony; but in the South they had difficulty in becoming members. Yet it was in the South that their services were most needed. The whole matter is important as a study in effort toward racial co-operation, and we shall refer to the experience of three representative cities.

In Atlanta the colored people were willing to work, because there were thousands of Negro soldiers at Camp Gordon, some of whom were their sons. Several attempts were made at first to work, but the Atlanta chapter assumed an attitude of aloofness. When the Red Cross launched its campaign in October, 1917, the Negro people were not asked to take part until only two days were left. They objected at first but finally decided to do what they could in the remaining two days. A committee of the most influential men was formed and this raised $400. They also contributed eight dozen sheets and eight dozen pillow cases. The money was turned over to the Atlanta chapter, with the names of all persons who contributed a dollar, the understanding being that this would go as membership fees in the branch which they would be allowed to form. They elected temporary officers and applied to the president of the Atlanta chapter for the complete organization of a branch, but were met by a policy of evasion. Meanwhile the women were eager to do knitting for the soldiers and they secured some yarn; but the next morning the young woman who received the yarn was called up over the telephone and asked to return the wool she had received, as the Red Cross was “not giving wool to new organizations.” Further effort on the part of the colored people at length brought forth a formal letter giving them authority to establish a branch, but because of certain conditions specified in the letter and the previous attitude of the chapter in Atlanta, the Negro people in this city did not finally co-operate in any large measure.

The attitude of the Red Cross in Little Rock was in the beginning similar to that of the Atlanta chapter, but there was a feeling on the part of some of the white people that they should utilize the efforts of the Negroes because they represented so large a part of their total strength. W. H. Holt, a representative citizen, believed that some satisfactory adjustment could be made and took charge of a campaign to raise $15,000 among the colored people. Instead of $15,000, $22,000 was raised. This result changed the situation entirely. The Negro branch was immediately recognized and rooms were opened in the county courthouse in which various kinds of Red Cross work was done by the colored women.

Very different was the case in Greenville, S. C., where was found the most liberal attitude in any Southern city. The Negro women were organized in a branch and did the same work as that done by the members of the white branches. They made comfort-kits for every drafted man sent from Greenville, as well as other articles desired by the Red Cross, and they gave $100 to the Y. M. C. A. for the South Carolina boys at Camp Jackson. They were enthusiastic about the work. The fine spirit of co-operation shown in Greenville was due in large measure to the attitude of Mrs. W. G. Sirrine, chairman of the local chapter, who believed heartily in the assistance of the Negro women and finally said of them, “They have responded to every call.” In general the work at this place was an example of what was possible in teamwork between the races when there was hearty good will and when all were striving for a common cause.

In every cantonment city in the South toward the end of the war there was some form of co-operation between the Red Cross and the colored women. The organization often aided the families of Negro soldiers when they were in need, as was necessary in the case of the soldiers at Camp Knox near Louisville, Ky. The service records of more than a hundred men were lost. Although they had been in the army for months, their families had not received a cent of their allotments or allowances. The Red Cross representative in Louisville took up the matter with the commanding officer, and he saw that the claims were paid immediately. This was only one of thousands of cases of such assistance.

RED CROSS CANTEEN SERVICE

Over 65,000 women enrolled in the seven hundred American Red Cross canteens. This service consisted of canteen kitchens, medical supplies, and small transfer hospitals. It was organized to stimulate the morale of the soldiers and to make them feel that the people of the country appreciated the loyal manner in which they had responded to the country’s call. In some of the chapters there were organized Negro canteen auxiliaries, and these did very effective work in such centers as Hamlet, N. C., Greenville, S. C., Montgomery, Ala., and New Orleans. At first there was some objection to the wearing of the uniform by Negro women, but in the centers mentioned they wore it and did regular work for the soldiers passing through on the trains. At Montgomery there was a canteen room at the station for colored soldiers, and in New Orleans there was a well equipped auxiliary with headquarters on the ground floor of the Pythian Temple owned by Negroes. In the beginning it was said in some places that the canteen workers failed to serve Negro soldiers, and to some extent this was true, but it was by no means the rule. The policy was to render service to all officers and enlisted men without distinction. On one occasion six hundred Negro soldiers stopped at a town in Arkansas. They had come direct from the farms in Louisiana, and were timid and uncertain when they arrived, but they felt very different when they left. As the local paper said, “The interest shown in them here made new and fighting men out of them. It will be a long time before the American Red Cross will perform a better service, or one that gives the good women, both white and colored, more pleasure.” Another time, as a train stopped at the station in Charlotte, N. C., a canteen worker came to a car window and asked the Negro soldier in the car to have a cup of coffee and a sandwich. He refused at first, but she insisted, passing the refreshments to him, and as the train pulled out she uttered a hearty “Good luck!” and “God bless you!”

Not only in America but in France also the Red Cross served these men. At Thiaucourt the canteen was in charge of a young woman who gave away large quantities of supplies, such as towels, summer underwear, shaving sticks, razor blades, gum and chocolate. In this instance the Negro soldiers shared almost entirely in the generosity, but this was only one of many, many cases of whole-hearted and highly appreciated service.

WAR CAMP COMMUNITY SERVICE

Raymond B. Fosdick, chairman of the Committee on Training Camp Activities, said in writing about the work of the Commission: “It is our task, in the first place, to see that the inside of the sixty-odd army camps furnish real amusement and recreation and social life. In the second place, we are to see to it that the towns and cities near by the camps are organized to provide recreation and social life to the soldiers who flock there when on leave. The Government will give the men while they train every possible opportunity for education, amusement, and social life.”

Negro soldiers were a part of the army for whom recreation was an essential. In most places, however, the pool rooms and the ice cream and soft drink parlors very frequently were but meeting-places for the soldiers and girls, and the boarding and rooming houses were especially questionable. Public dance halls were hardly ever adequately supervised. In Charlotte, for instance, where two public halls were conducted, the most popular one was open and crowded every night. A policeman acted as doorkeeper and received all tickets. Little effort was made to control the conduct and none to supervise dancing.

The War Camp Community Service came into being to organize the social and recreational facilities of the communities adjacent to the training camps and to furnish the best possible places for the soldiers in their free time. City organizations were impressed with their responsibility for showing genuine hospitality to the men, and invariably they co-operated. In the beginning there was very little effort to provide centers for Negro soldiers. Within the first seven months that Negro soldiers were in the camps in only one city did the War Camp Community Service make provision for their entertainment. In May, 1918, however, eight clubs were opened in different cities, and in all cases these were the best places that provided wholesome amusement, and usually the only available places.

While discussion was going on as to whether Negro soldiers would be permanent and whether it was necessary to establish clubs for them, R. B. Patin, executive secretary of the War Camp Community Service at Des Moines, established the first club for Negro soldiers. The Lincoln School, a large three-story building, was secured by the Community Service and the Des Moines Chamber of Commerce, and Herbert R. Wright, a lawyer and former consul of the United States in Honduras and Venezuela, was placed in charge of the club, which had a spacious reading-room, well supplied with writing materials, and a music room with piano, victrola, and numerous records. There was also an up-to-date cafeteria, as well as a bootblack parlor and a well conducted pool room. Citizens were invited to the band concerts in the auditorium, as well as to the socials of the various companies in the 366th Infantry.

Two of the largest community centers for Negro soldiers were located at Washington, D. C., and Baltimore, Md. During the summer of 1918 a well equipped “Soldiers’ Club” was established in Washington; it was conducted by J. B. Ramsey and the co-operation of the community was more effective than in any other center visited by the writer. Some form of entertainment was given practically every evening by club or church organizations; on Sundays many wounded soldiers at the Walter Reed Hospital were taken to church and then to dinner; and on Christmas Day, 1918, and New Year’s Day, 1919, there was very special hospitality and entertainment. The center in Baltimore was opened July 20, 1918, and was in charge of Dr. W. H. Weaver, a Presbyterian minister. The club was visited by soldiers from Camp Meade, Camp Holabird, Curtis Bay, the Canton warehouses, and Edgewood, and its chief feature was its sleeping-quarters accommodating two hundred men. For these the fee was 25 cents a night and they were the most attractive found in any center for Negro soldiers. The men at Camp Upton had access to the recreational facilities of New York, and while a club was established for them in Harlem, they did not depend upon the community center as in most other places. At Camp Devens in Massachusetts the soldiers’ clubs were open to all men in uniform irrespective of race.

So much has been said about racial goodwill in Virginia that it was surprising that there should be in this state in the beginning an indifference that was very close to opposition to the establishing of clubs for Negro soldiers. After the first eight months of war, however, the need became so urgent that clubs were established at Petersburg and Richmond for the soldiers at Camp Lee, at Alexandria for those at Camp Humphrey, and at Norfolk, Portsmouth, Newport News, and Hampton for the sailors and soldiers in the various camps and training stations on the Lower Peninsula. At Petersburg, on account of the opposition of the local ministers, dancing was not included as a part of the club entertainment. At Alexandria an Odd Fellows Hall, owned by Negroes, was donated to the Community Service without rent. The first club erected at Newport News proving altogether inadequate, eighteen city lots were purchased and a new building costing $25,000 erected. A staff of six secretaries was employed. To furnish the building at Hampton, Negro citizens raised $1,000, an effective program being carried out under the direction of Miss Elizabeth Martin. The success of the work in Newport News and Hampton was largely due to the sincere effort of J. L. Einstein, director of community work on the Lower Peninsula.

In Columbia, S. C., community work was influenced by local sentiment and it was more than a year before a club was provided for Negro soldiers. At Spartanburg and Greenville there were small clubs which were principally bureaus of information, and at Greenville the colored committee especially opposed dancing. At Charlotte, where a hotel was renovated and made into an attractive club, the Negro ministers gave their moral support, and clubs of colored women aided greatly. In Atlanta it was said that the Negro soldiers were not “stationary enough” for a club, though thousands of them were constantly at Camp Gordon during the first year of the war. It was necessary at length for the War Department to intervene on behalf of the men and a club was finally established November 15, 1918, after fifteen months of waiting. When it was established the colored committee objected to dancing, pool and card playing, thus eliminating the forms of recreation that the soldiers especially enjoyed. In Augusta, near Camp Hancock, more than $3,000 was spent in renovating a two-story hall, and the club was in charge of a liberal Baptist minister, Rev. R. J. McCain. At Macon, near Camp Wheeler, club rooms were secured in the Pythian Temple. At Anniston, near Camp McClellan, the man employed as janitor was expected to do the executive work and very little was done by way of carrying out a constructive program. At Hattiesburg, Miss., a committee of Negro men raised $100, rented and furnished a small rest room for the Negro soldiers when they were first sent to Camp Shelby; later the War Camp Community Service renovated the Masonic Hall with two floors and attractively furnished it as a club. At Alexandria, La., near Camp Beauregard, a club was opened in the Masonic Hall and repaired by the Community Service at a cost of $1,000. At Little Rock the club was in the Taborian Hall, a modern, well located building. The Negro citizens paid the rent of $10 a month, while the Community Service equipped the room. A soldier from Camp Pike was in charge. Effective work was not done at this center because of lack of co-operation with the citizens. The state of Texas was generally behind others in the work. At Camp Logan, Houston, Camp MacArthur, Waco, and Camp Bowie, Fort Worth, there were no centers. $5,000 was placed in the budget at Fort Worth for a club, but it was cut out entirely, and the Negro people felt keenly the attitude toward Negro soldiers after they had contributed generously toward the various “drives” for the war. At Camp Travis in San Antonio, after eight months had passed, the Negro citizens purchased a site and gave it to the War Department for as long a time as it might be needed. The War Camp Community Service appropriated $10,000, and a building was opened at Christmas, 1918. When this was no longer needed for war work, it was turned over to the colored people and used as a public library.

All told this work gave to many Negro people a new conception of well organized and supervised recreation for the young people. Scores of men and women were employed as secretaries and tens of thousands of dollars spent in promoting the work. Realizing that the development of recreation centers for Negro girls was a part of the bigger problem from the standpoint of the soldiers, the War Camp Community Service did not confine its activities to maintaining clubs for soldiers but also established centers where there were persons who gave their entire time to girls. In the cantonment cities the young women were organized into patriotic leagues and clubs, and these co-operated with the soldiers in giving entertainments and socials, and in those cities where the work for girls was most active there it was that Community Service as a whole was most successful. When the first soldiers’ club was equipped at Des Moines, one of the chief factors contributing to its success was the organization also of four girls’ clubs with a total membership of one hundred and thirty. There was a chaperone for each club; gymnasium classes met twice a week, and at the close a demonstration in folk games was given. At Chillicothe the club room was located under an Episcopal mission and was beautifully furnished. In Baltimore the whole effort was handled with unusual success, and no young woman was admitted to the parties without a card from the hostesses. The work in these three places was typical. Sometimes employment departments and classes in cooking and sewing were conducted. All such effort gave the young women better protection and at the same time afforded them social contact in a wholesome environment. It also gave to the different communities a deeper sense of responsibility for the welfare of the Negro girl.

THE NEGRO CHURCH

In the cantonment cities, especially in the South, there were numerous representative Negro churches. A few of these had adequate facilities for the entertainment of soldiers, but many were too poorly located or equipped to conduct social centers. The ministers’ unions or alliances always endorsed the war work for the soldiers, but rarely was there organized effort on the part of the churches. On one occasion in Columbia, S. C., the ministers’ alliance assumed responsibility for the money contributed by the citizens for a flag presented to the 371st Infantry. Some important factors contributed to the general situation. In many cases at the beginning the welfare agencies in the cantonment cities showed a tendency to ignore the Negro citizens. Another difficulty was found in the uncertainty as to the soldiers’ presence. Numerous cases occurred where elaborate arrangements were made for the men and they did not arrive at all. In such a case of course either the church or the camp authorities had failed to do what was necessary for the most complete co-operation. Sometimes when rest rooms were provided by the churches, the soldiers were not enthusiastic about them because of the limitations placed upon them. Excellent concerts and well ordered socials were sometimes given by the churches, however, and soldiers were frequently invited to dinner at the homes of members of congregations after the Sunday services.

The best co-operation in any cantonment city between the Negro churches and the camp authorities was probably that in Atlanta. The Congregational church here had a spacious basement, a good library and a well equipped gymnasium, and a trained worker organized and worked with the girls’ clubs. A special Sunday afternoon service was held and after this there were refreshments. Other large churches in Atlanta were also active. San Antonio followed closely in such endeavor; and in Augusta, Ga., one church sent a wagon load of watermelons to the soldiers, and another twenty gallons of ice cream. In all the cantonment cities ministers from the various churches preached in the camps and they often took with them their church choirs. Some of the national religious bodies sent camp pastors to the soldiers, and these men sometimes spent as much as three days a week addressing those in uniform and visiting the hospitals.

FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

The General Wartime Commission of the Churches was constituted by the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America soon after the nation entered the war. This commission was composed of more than a hundred men chosen from the different religious bodies which were dealing with the problems raised by the war, and its activities were conducted through committees charged with specific phases of war work. Reports of conditions in the camps led to the Appointment of a Committee on the Welfare of Negro troops. This consisted of Bishop Wilbur P. Thirkield, chairman, George Foster Peabody, Dr. R. R. Moton, Dr. James H. Dillard, J. R. Hawkins, Thomas Jesse Jones, Rev. M. Ashby Jones, Bishop R. E. Jones, Robert E. Speer, Rev. Henry A. Atkinson, Rev. W. H. Jernagin, and Rev. Gaylord S. White.

In order that the Committee might have definite information for its work, two Negro men, Charles H. Williams and Rev. G. Lake Imes, were appointed as field secretaries. Of their work Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, executive secretary of the committee, wrote as follows: “One of these, financed by the Phelps-Stokes Fund, made careful observations of conditions in and about the cantonments where colored soldiers were located. The reports prepared by this worker showed such a thoroughness in ascertaining the truth and such a constructive point of view in the recommendations made as to win the cordial approval of the War Department and all the agencies co-operating in the care of the soldiers. The second worker devoted his time to the study of the churches in their relations to colored soldiers. On the basis of these observations he assisted the churches to plan their activities so as to be of real help to the soldiers in the community.” The reports of the field secretaries were sent direct to the War Department and on the basis of them conferences were held with the Secretary of War and the various welfare organizations. It was in this connection that the Special Assistant to the Secretary of War, Dr. Emmett J. Scott, labored unceasingly to remove discrimination and adjust difficulties. Members of the committee, though in an unofficial capacity, often assisted directly. Bishop Thirkield visited various camps and cantonment cities and conferred with army officers, chambers of commerce, and Rotary clubs, always with a view to improving conditions. Mr. Peabody on a number of occasions went to Washington and conferred with the President and the Secretary of War with reference to the Negro soldiers. In a most uncompromising manner he always advocated a square deal. Dr. Moton was frequently called into conference with President Wilson and Secretary Baker and was also asked to go to France to investigate the situation when damaging reports had been spread in both America and France with reference to the conduct of Negro officers and soldiers. Dr. Jones was also called into conference and toward the close of the war went to France under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A.

Thus, while there were many difficulties and an enormous amount of work to be done in the different welfare agencies—whether the Y. M. C. A., the Red Cross, the Community Service, or some other—there were loyal souls who were laboring unceasingly for the comfort of the Negro soldier and also for the final consummation of victory for the great cause in which all were engaged.