Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered

APPENDICES

I. Details of the Theodolite Observations at Stonehenge

The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. Most of the observations were made at two points very near the axis, which may be designated by a, b. Station a was at a distance of 61 feet to the south-west of the centre of the temple, and b 364 feet to the north-east. The distance from the centre of Stonehenge to Salisbury Spire being 41,981 feet, the calculated corrections for parallax at the points of observation with reference to Salisbury Spire are:—

(1) Relative Azimuths.—Theodolite at station a—

(2) Absolute Azimuths.—All the azimuths were referred to that of Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by observations of the Sun and Polaris.

(a) Observation of Sun, June 23, 1901, 3.30-3.40 P.M.

Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. Using the formula

cos^{2 1}⁄₂ A = sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + c - z) sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + z - c) sin c . sin z

where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance,
c = co-latitude, and z = zenith distance,

we get

(b) Observations of Polaris.—June 23, 1901. Time of greatest easterly elongation, calculated by formula cos h = tan φ cot δ, is G.M.T. 1.34 A.M.

Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the formula

sin A = cos δ sec φ

is 181° 57′ 0″ from south.

The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the value of the azimuth communicated by the Ordnance Survey Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ from the centre of the circle, which being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the position of station a, is increased to 9° 8′ 20″.

Hence, from the point of observation a, 9° 8′ 20″ has been adopted as the azimuth of Salisbury Spire.

We thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from the point a:

The difference of 8¹⁄₂′ between this and the assumed axis 49° 34′ 18″ is so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily been employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of the leaning stone, and the want of verticality, parallelism and straightness of the inner surfaces of the opening in the N.E. trilithon, we are justified in adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the temple.

Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p. 65. The small angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which are supposed to be parallel to the axis of the avenue), observed from station a, was measured, and the corresponding calculated correction was applied to the ascertained true bearing of the more distant peg B.

Thus

The mean of the three independent determinations by another observer was 49° 39′ 6″.

The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the avenue determined in the same manner by observations from station b is 49° 32′ 54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, justifies the adoption of the value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the Ordnance Survey for the straight line from Stonehenge to Sidbury Hill.

(3) Observation of Sunrise.—On the morning of June 25, 1901, sunrise was observed from station a, and a setting made as nearly as possible on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the Sun appeared.

The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s Heel, and the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun.

The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose about 2′ of the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it was made, and therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the Friar’s Heel and generally the data adopted.

II. Hints on Making, and Method of Reducing, the Field Observations.

It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to the precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an example of their reduction to an astronomical basis.

For the azimuths of the sight-lines the investigator of these monuments cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps published by the Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very high order and is not likely to be exceeded, even if approached, by any casual observer having to make his own special arrangements for correct time before he can begin his surveying work.

In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not included every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making a careful search; many of the stones are covered by gorse, &c., and are not, therefore, easily found.

In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth between that and the unmarked objects determined. By this means the azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained.

When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne in mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due north and south. The Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton, will probably on application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this account, and this should be applied, of course, to each of the values obtained.

If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make observations of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance Survey, full instructions as to the method of procedure may be found in an inexpensive instruction book[133] issued by the Board of Education. The instructions given on p. 49, § 3, are most generally applicable, and the form on p. 76 will be found very handy for recording and reducing the observations.

In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the mean taken, and then the telescope should be reversed in its Ys, reset, and both readings taken again. One setting and reading are of little use.

The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed in a preliminary reconnaissance to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations. This may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on the one-inch maps. This method, however, is only very roughly approximate owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close to the monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient magnitude to cause large errors in the results.

Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, be neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, taken. Should the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above the actual horizon, its elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon.

Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the sight-line, it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of declination can be made.

The process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be gathered from the examples given below:—

Data.

Monument:—E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. i.e. colat = 39° 52′.

Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone.

Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E.

Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′.

Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on p. 263, indicates that this is probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. Therefore, in determining the zenith distance, the correction for the sun’s semi-diameter (16′) must be taken into account, allowing that 2′ of the sun’s disc was above the horizon when the observation was made.

Zenith Distance:—

Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises sun 17′. If 2′ of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is 14′ below.

∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′.

Declination:—

Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the latitude being known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the sun may be found by the following equations:—

(1) tan θ = tan z. cos A,

where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose of computation, z is the true zenith distance, and A is the distance from the North point.

(2) cos Δ = cos z . cos (c - θ)[134] cos θ,

where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and c is the colatitude (90° - lat.) of the place of observation.

In the example taken this gives us—

(1) tan θ = tan 88° 21′ . cos 66° 38′

θ = 85° 50′ 45″

(2) cos Δ = cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″) cos 85° 50′ 45″

Δ = 73° 57′ 50″

Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N.

Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s declination on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude that the Long-stone was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen from the Tregeseal Circle.

Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only modification necessary in the process of calculating the declination would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction of 14′.

Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given on pp. 115-6 in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and to find the date.

Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as seen from the Tregeseal circle—

Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′.

This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the stellar-declination curves (p. 115-6) shows that Arcturus had that declination in 2330 B.C. From the table given on p. 117, we see that at that epoch Arcturus acted as warning-star for the August sun.

In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in preliminary examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the refraction exactly counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true zenith distance at the moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the N.P.D. of the star may be found from the following simple equation—

(3) cos Δ = cos A cos λ

where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the latitude of the place of observation.

INDEX

• A.
• Abydos, clock star at, 297.
• Africa, sacred stones and trees, 235.
• Aldebaran, see Tauri α.
• “Allée couverte,” 41, 317.
• “All Hallows,” 187; Irish and Welsh equivalents, 195.
• “All Souls,” change of date, 186.
• Alsia well, 227.
• Altar stone, Stonehenge, 81; Aberdeen type, 36.
• Amen-Rā, 2; temple of, 55, 297.
• Amplitude, 10, 111.
• Animals, sacrifices of, 197.
• Annu, temples at, 296, 297, 304.
• Antares, see Scorpionis α.
• Antiquaries, Society of, 69, 133.
• Antrobus, Sir Edward, 49, 69, 94.
• Apollo, 52.
• Arabia, sacred stones and trees in, 235.
• Archæology, relation to astronomy, 4.
• Arcturus, see Boötis α.
• Aries, 15, 315.
• Armenia, calendar in, 29; fire festival in, 191.
• Aryans, 40, 236.
• Ascension Day, 185, 231.
• Asherah, 245, 257.
• Ash Wednesday, 182.
• Assacombe, 158.
• Assyria, sacred trees, &c., 245.
• Astronomer-priests, procedure of, 110, 316.
• Athens, May-day worship, 108; temples at, 32; warning stars at, 311.
• August-festival, dates of, 185; in Brittany, 199; in Ireland and Wales, 186; warning-stars, 311.
• Aurigae α (Capella), clock- and warning-star, 117, 272, 290, 292, 293, 298, 299, 304, 312; associated with Ptah, 304.
• Avebury, cove at, 37.
• Avenue, at Stonehenge, 63, 65.
• Avenues, in Brittany, 149; on Dartmoor, 146, 319; definition of, 37.
• Axis (of temple), Stonehenge, 55, 60; Karnak, 56; Kouyunjik, 305; Annu, 305; change of, 42.
• Azimuth, defined, 10, 111; changes in, 122; of May sunrise, 264.
• Azimuth-marks, illumination of, 110.
• B.
• Baal, 197, 249, 259.
• “Baal’s Fire” (Beltan), 40.
• Babylon, 24, 240, 259, 295, 308; May year in, 304.
• Babylonians, astronomical knowledge of, 240; early navigators, 241.
• Baker, Sir Samuel, 235.
• Balder, 320.
• Balfour, Prof. Bayley, 201.
• Ball, Dr. Henry, 26.
• Balus, first king of Orkney, 259.
• Baring-Gould, Rev. S., 149, 190, 194, 198, 213, 215, 239, 256.
• Barnstone-Maeshowe (Orkney), 129.
• Barrows, burials in, 323; chambered, 164, 192, 317; date of, 78, 238; employment of, 38, 110, 140, 268; varieties of, 143.
• Bartinné, Cornwall, 219.
• Battendon, 158.
• Batworthy, avenues near, 160.
• Bede’s well, near Jarrow, 230.
• Beirna-well (Barnwell), 230.
• Bell, Mr. J., of Dundalk, 253.
• Beltaine, ceremonies at, 40, 197, 285, 320; variations of, 201, 204, 218, 259.
• Betelgeuse, see Orionis α.
• Bethel, 245, 255.
• Bigswell, 218.
• “Blind Fiddler,” The, 291.
• Blisland, Cornwall, 291.
• Blocking-stones, 156, 176.
• Blow, Mr., 69.
• “Blue stones,” at Stonehenge, 80, 91.
• Bolitho, Mr. Horton, 140, 219, 268, 270, 277, 282, 287, 289, 291.
• Bonfires, see Fires.
• Bookan, Ring of, 128.
• Boötis α (Arcturus), 117, 137, 150, 151, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 174, 273, 280, 299, 301, 311, 314.
• Borlase, Dr., 134, 218, 219, 234, 254, 255, 267, 289, 323.
• Borlase, Mr. W. C., 37, 213, 266, 274.
• Boscawen-Un, 287, 290, 309, 314.
• Boswens Common, 282.
• Britain, introduction of clock-stars, 299; May-year temples, 309; pre-Celtic inhabitants, 250.
• Brittany, festivals, 198; megalithic remains, 96; solstitial fires, 194.
• Britons, Saxon slaughter of, 95.
• Bronze-age, 75, 78.
• Brugsch, 1, 296.
• Budge, Dr., 296.
• Burials, 146, 164; in mounds, 323.
• Burton, Captain, 235.
• C.
• Cæsar, 52, 323, 324.
• Cairns, employment of, 38, 142, 164, 192, 289; Biblical references to, 244; burials in, 252; orientation of, 254.
• Calabria, 312.
• Calends, the winter, 195.
• Calendar, changes in the, 23; Armenian and Turkish, 29; Celtic, 186; Koptic, 28.
• Camden, 289.
• Canaan, sacred stones and trees in, 245.
• Canis Majoris α (Sirius), 108, 117, 143, 311.
• Candlemas, 143, 184, 185, 188, 191.
• Canopus, 18.
• Capella, see Aurigae α.
• Capricorni α, 117.
• Caradon Hill, 143.
• Carn Kenidjack, 278.
• Carnac, bonfires at, 40; menhirs at, 98, 105, 239; sacrifices at, 199.
• Carruthers, Mr., 69.
• Castallack, Cornwall, 267.
• Castor, see Geminorum.
• Cattle, drenching in holy wells, 230.
• Caves, purpose of, 244, 254.
• “Cave of Elephanta,” 256.
• Celts, calendar of the, 186, 195; intrusion of, 324; worship, 32.
• Ceylon, 235.
• Chabas, 1.
• Chaldea, 12.
• Challacombe, 158; multiple avenue, 149, 159; solstitial worship, 314.
• Chapel Euny, Cornwall, 219, 226.
• Chaucer, 203.
• “Cheesewring, The,” 134.
• Chichén-Itzá, 32, 308.
• “Choir Gawr,” 53.
• Chûn Castle, Cornwall, 284, 286.
• Chûn Cromlech, Cornwall, 284.
• Churches, replaced stone circles, 219.
• Chysoister, 323.
• Circles (stone), employment of, 232, 316; associated with wells, 228; classification of, 36, 37; star observations in, 109.
• Cists, 164; burials in, 323.
• Clock-stars, employment of, 108, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 308; fall into disuse, 322.
• Coinage, early British, 52.
• Collimation-marks, 316.
• Constantine, Cornwall, 269.
• Cord, The stretching of the, 1.
• Cormac, Archbishop, 181, 189, 195, 204.
• Cornish, Mr., 270, 282.
• Cornwall, astronomical conditions in, 262; azimuths of May sunrise, 264; clock-stars in, 299; May bathing in, 227; stone circles in, 36, 262; wells and circles in, 219.
• Cosens, Bishop, of Durham, 184.
• Council of Nice, 23.
• Couvade, 319.
• Coves, 37, 316.
• Cresset-stones, 190, 256.
• Cromlechs, defined, 37; employed, 101, 102, 161, 253; in cairns, 253; uses of, 110, 141, 245, 252, 317.
• Crosses (stone), old monoliths, 141, 273.
• Crozon, monuments at, 101.
• Cult, change of, 320.
• “Cultus Lapidum,” denouncement of, 39.
• Cumberland, stone circle in, 36.
• Cunnington, Mr., 79, 81, 90.
• Cups, for containing lamps, 319.
• Cursiter, Mr., 35, 123.
• Cursus, The, at Stonehenge, 154, 155, 319.
• D.
• Danams, 90.
• Danckworth, Dr., 111.
• Dartmoor, avenues on, 146, 151, 319.
• Davies, Mr., 27, 95.
• Declination, defined, 10; change of, 111.
• Deepdale, 132.
• Dekkan, sacred stones and trees in the, 235.
• Denderah, 295, 297.
• Dessil, pre-Christian custom, 234.
• Devoir, Lieut., 98, 104, 105, 145, 152.
• Diana, temple of, 31.
• Diodorus Siculus, 51.
• Diseases, cure of, 318.
• Divination, at holy well, 226.
• Dolmens, 255, 316; derivation of name, 38; à galerie, described, 38; à l’allée couverte, described, 38; in tumuli, 253; in Ireland, 37; purpose of, 41, 252, 254; Semitic origin of, 245.
• Down Tor, May-year at, 309.
• Draconis γ, 295, 296, 299, 305.
• Drizzlecombe, 158.
• Druids, arrival of, 27; customs of, 259, 319, 323; mistletoe and the, 210; teachings of, 52.
• Dümichen, 1.
• Durandus, 183, 192.
• Durham, cathedral customs at, 184.
• Dwellings of priests, 317, 323.
• Dymond, Mr., 166, 171.
• E.
• Easter, 40, 182, 183; May festival replaced by, 231; variation of date, 24.
• Ecliptic, change of obliquity, 15.
• Eden Hall, 227.
• Edgar (A.D. 963), 233.
• Edmonds, Mr., 267.
• Egypt, astronomy in, 249; calendar, 28; clock-stars, 295; equinoxes in Lower, 108; May-year, 304; sequence of worships, 312; solstices, 258; temple azimuths, 298; year-gods, of, 259.
• Elias (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, 29, 257.
• Ephesus, 32.
• Equator, apparent path of stars at, 7.
• Equinoxes, the, 13, 18, 108, 211; temples for, 32; in Britain, 64, 315.
• Erechtheum, the older, 31, 108, 142.
• Euphrates, rise of the, 30.
• Evans, Sir John, 76.
• F.
• Falmouth, Lord, 268.
• Farr, Sutherlandshire, 229.
• Farmer, Prof., 27.
• Feasts, 187, 319.
• February, warning-stars in Britain, 312.
• Ferguson, Dr., 110.
• Fernworthy, avenues at, 158.
• Festivals, 182, 185, 258; Cornish, 139; May, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258.
• Fires, at various seasons, 30, 32, 39, 183, 184, 189, 194, 204; Druidical, 181; in cromlechs, 317; in hollowed stones, 323; pagan, 191; Roman Catholic and Protestant, 182; sacred, 195, 248, 256; customs, 190, 199; festivals, 194; rites, 192; signals, 21; wheels, 193.
• Flints, 79.
• Florence, fire customs, 193.
• Folklore, 179; Babylonian and Indian, 242; Semitic and British, 246.
• Fosseway, the Great, 147.
• Fougou, 192, 267.
• Fountains, 246.
• France, place names derived from wells, 234.
• Frazer, Dr., 26, 28, 40, 189, 209.
• Friar’s Heel, the (Stonehenge), 53, 60, 68, 90, 93.
• “Furry Dance,” the, 206.
• G.
• Gaillard, 96, 104.
• “Galgal,” description of, 38.
• Games, 319.
• Garments, offerings of, 318.
• Gauls, 323.
• Gavr Innis, 38, 255.
• Gemini, 15.
• Geminorum, α, β and γ, 117.
• Geoffrey of Monmouth, 52.
• Glamorgan, rites at holy wells, 223.
• Globe, celestial, 8; precessional, 114.
• Goidels, 237.
• Gomme, Mr., 195, 213, 216, 221, 222, 227, 236, 238.
• “Goon-Rith,” 266.
• Gould, Baring-, see Baring-Gould.
• Gowland, Prof., 3, 45, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 321.
• Greece, astronomical observations in, 34, 298, 311; divisions of year in, 20, 304; temples in, 34, 306, 311, 313, 315; temple building in, 299.
• Grimm, 26, 211.
• Grovely Castle, 66.
• Groves, Biblical reference to, 245; sacred, 27, 258.
• Giraldus Cambrensis, 52.
• Gudea (2500 B.C.), 242.
• Guest, Dr., 95.
• H.
• Hall, Mr., 237.
• Halley, 54.
• Hallowe’en, 125, 143, 201, 311.
• Hallowmass, 187.
• Hameldon, 147.
• Hammerstones, and axes, 74.
• Harrison, Mr., 50.
• Har-Tor, 158.
• Harvest, season of, 139, 304.
• “Hautville’s Quoit,” 167, 168.
• Hawthorn, 201, 202, 221.
• Hawk’s Tor, 291.
• Hazlitt, 183, 197, 239.
• Hecatæus, of Abdera, 51.
• Hecatompedon, the, 31, 108, 154.
• Helios, 29.
• Hellard, Colonel, 270.
• Helston, May-day at, 205.
• Henderson, Capt., 140, 270, 274.
• Henry of Huntingdon, 52.
• Hermes, 259.
• Hieroglyphics, 38.
• Higgins, Mr., 62.
• Hills, actual and angular heights, 112; effects of, 120, 264, 291.
• Hoare, Sir R. C., 61, 149.
• Holed stones, see stones.
• Hollantide, 188.
• Holne (Dartmoor), 195.
• Holy of Holies, 16, 55.
• Holy Thursday, 185.
• Honeysuckle, 207.
• Hook Lake, 158.
• Hope, 213, 228, 231, 233.
• Horizon, angular elevation of, 112; early employment of, 2, 5, 250.
• Horses, at May-day festivals, 319.
• Horus, 32, 195.
• Huc, 236.
• “Hurlers, The” (Cornwall), 36, 133, 134, 135; alignments at, 137; change of warning star at, 311; dates of construction, 139; May-year at, 309; solstices at, 314.
• Hyperboreans, 51.
• I.
• Ihering, 241.
• Illuminations, collimation-mark, 317; May-day, 204.
• Implements, flint, 74.
• Inverness, type of circle at, 36.
• Ireland, division of the year in, 30; festivals in, 187, 197, 309.
• Isis, 32.
• Isle-of-Man, festivals in the, 187, 207; wells and circles in the, 219.
• J.
• James, Sir Henry, 219.
• Japan, 3, 84.
• Jews, equinoctial festivals among the, 258.
• Johnston, Colonel, 111, 129, 135, 152, 166.
• Jones, Inigo, 53.
• Jones, Prof. J. M., 250.
• Josephus, 32.
• Judd, Prof., 80, 91.
• June-Year, 93, 251.
• K.
• Karnak, temples at, 55, 297.
• Kenidjack, Carn, 278.
• Kerenneur, 105.
• Kerlescant, 39.
• Kerloas, 105.
• Keswick, 35, 111.
• King’s Teignton, 196.
• Kingstone, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), 36.
• Kit’s Coity House, 37.
• Knightlow Hill (Coventry), 188.
• Knut (A.D. 1018), 233.
• Kouyunjik, 308, 322.
• L.
• “Lammas,” 186.
• Lanyon, 273.
• Lanyon Quoit, 280.
• Latitude, results of, 291.
• Layard, Sir H., 241, 307, 308.
• Lent, origin and customs of, 183, 184.
• Leslie, Colonel, 218, 235, 255.
• Lewis, Mr. A. L., 35, 123, 176.
• Lockyer, Dr., 111.
• Longstones, found in barrows, 268.
• Longstone, The (Tregeseal), 278, 280, 309, 314.
• “Lug,” the Irish Sun-God, 186.
• Lugnassad, Irish feast, 186.
• Lukis, Dr., 37, 133, 144, 150, 253, 265, 287, 291, 292.
• Luxor, 297.
• Lyrae, α (Vega), 297, 315.
• M.
• MacRitchie, Mr., 192, 317.
• Madron (Cornwall), 225.
• Maeshowe (Orkney), 35, 123, 125, 253, 254; date of, 129; use of, 192.
• Markab, see Pegasi α.
• Marriage, customs, 285, 319.
• Martin, St., in Germany, 187.
• Martinmas, old, 188.
• Maudslay, Mr., 32, 308.
• Mauls, 75.
• May-day, 108, 201, 204.
• May-eve, 95, 207.
• May-festivals, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258.
• Maypole, 205, 227.
• May-sun, 36, 151, 262, 263.
• May-thorn, 202, 212, 320.
• May-year, the, 19, 181, 232, 304, 320; divisions of, 263, 304; provided for, 18, 35, 64, 93, 98, 104, 105, 127, 174, 241, 247, 271, 280, 284, 286, 290, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 321; relation to June-year, 106, 230, 251, 261; warning-stars, 117, 142; worship, 95, 96, 109.
• Mecca, 245.
• Meinrethydd (May-eve), 95.
• Melon, island of, 102.
• Memphis, Capella at, 304; May-worship, 18; temples at, 297, 298.
• Mên-an-tol, 284, 286.
• Ménec (Le), 39, 98, 159.
• Menhirs, 37, 105; ceremonies at, 256; in Brittany, 96; near holy wells, 225; various, 39, 101, 102, 103, 152, 157.
• Men-Peru, 269.
• Menu or Min, temple of, 29, 31, 108, 142, 297, 298, 305; associated with Spica, 299.
• Mercury, 259.
• Merrivale, avenues at, 147, 153, 154; May-year at, 309.
• Merry Maidens, 265; alignments at, 271, 276; clock-stars at, 302; May-year at, 309.
• Midsummer, ceremonies at, 231, 285.
• Midsummer eve, mistletoe on, 210.
• Mihr, Armenian fire-god, 191.
• Mistletoe, 26, 27, 201, 210, 320; as a medicine, 210; “Oil of St. John,” 210; Swedish notions concerning, 209.
• Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar, 28.
• Molech, 248.
• Molene Island, 103.
• Monoliths, 81, 216, 244.
• Montelius, 76.
• Moon, employment of the, 18; worship of the, 249.
• Morbihan, alignments at, 100.
• Morgan, Lloyd, Prof., 167, 170, 176.
• Morgan, Mr., 53.
• Morrow, Mr., 171, 174.
• Mountain-ash, 206.
• Mungo-Park, 235.
• Murray, Mr. George, 27.
• Murray, Mr. John, 308.
• Mut, temple of, 297.
• Mythology, origin of, 19.
• N.
• Nantwich, 221.
• Naos, The, at Stonehenge, 16, 41, 63, 95.
• Need fires, 190.
• Neolithic-age, 75, 76.
• New-Grange (Meath), 38.
• Newton’s herbal, 212.
• New-year, change of date, 194.
• Night-dial, use of, 302.
• Nile, 3, 18, 312.
• Nimrood, temples at, 241, 308.
• “Nine Maidens” (The), 292, 293.
• Nineveh, May temple at, 307.
• Norwich, sun-wheel at, 193.
• Nos Galan-galaf, 187.
• Nos Glamau, 207.
• November, festival, 186, 195, 290, 311.
• O.
• Oak, contiguous to sacred wells, 216.
• Obliquity of the Ecliptic, change of the, 15, 43.
• Observations, astronomical and religious, 125, 322.
• O’Connor, Dr., 216.
• Odin stone, Stenness, 127, 218, 283, 285.
• Offerings, at holy places, 222, 318.
• Onston, 132.
• Ordeals, 247.
• Ordnance Survey, 111, 253.
• Orientation, first use of, 18.
• Orionis, α (Betelgeuse), 117, 144, 314.
• Orkney, 125, 259.
• Otley, Mr. Jonathan, 35, 111.
• Ouseley, Sir William, 234.
• P.
• Palenque, 32, 308.
• Palæolithic age, 75.
• Palm, at vernal equinox, 211.
• Palm Sunday, 184, 211.
• Panathenæa, 31.
• Parallelithons, 148.
• “Pardons,” in Brittany, 198.
• Parthenon, 298.
• Payn, Mr. Howard, 66, 94.
• Pegasi, α and β, 117.
• Pennant, tour of Scotland, 206.
• Penrose, Mr., 31, 34, 38, 42, 51, 62, 78, 89, 93, 94, 109, 142, 154, 298, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315.
• Pentecost, feast of, 32, 185.
• Pepi, 295.
• Percy’s Northumberland Notes, 184.
• Perrott, Mr., 148.
• Persia, rag-offerings in, 234.
• Petrie, Flinders, Prof., 62.
• Pet-ser, 2.
• Philpot, Mrs., 257.
• Picks, of deer’s-horn, 78.
• “Pierre du Conseil” (Lagatjar), 104.
• Piers’ Survey of S. Ireland, 182, 229.
• Pins, as offerings at sacred wells, 222, 227, 258, 318.
• “Pipers, The,” 266, 271.
• Pitt-Rivers, General, 235, 236.
• Plato, 7.
• Pleiades, at British monuments, 153, 273, 274, 280, 290; employed by Semites, 247; elsewhere, 108, 117, 151, 155, 162, 310, 311.
• Ploudalmezeau, monuments at, 100.
• Ploy-field, the, at Holne, 196.
• Pole, apparent path of stars at the north, 6; elevation of the, 9; motion of stars, round, 300, 303.
• Pollux, see Geminorum.
• Pompeii, 312.
• Pomponius Mela, 322, 324.
• Pont l’Abbé, menhirs at, 105.
• Portugal, place-names from wells, 234.
• Pratt’s flowering plants, 202, 206.
• Precession, effects of, 64, 295.
• Prestwich, Prof., 79.
• Priests, 316, 317.
• Processions, sacred, 319.
• Ptah, 29, 31, 298, 304.
• Pylons, use of, 55.
• Pyramids, building of, 18; worship at, 29.
• Pyrenees, genii at holy-wells, 234.
• Pyrus aucuparia, 201.
• Q.
• Quicken-tree, 206, 208.
• Quiller-Couch, holy wells, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228.
• Quoit, definition of, 38.
• R.
• Racing, at festivals, 319.
• Rags, as offerings in sacred places, 216, 222, 223, 225.
• Ram Feast, at Holne (Dartmoor), 196.
• Read, Mr. C. H., 237.
• Refraction, effect of, 112, 120.
• Rent-day, date of, in Ireland, 30.
• Rhys, Prof., 26, 30, 186, 188, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, 220, 223, 250, 260, 319.
• Roddon, = Rowan, 206.
• Roll-Rich, Oxon., 36.
• Rolston, Sir. W. E., 120, 122, 290.
• Rorrington, Chirbury, 227.
• Rowan-tree, 201, 211, 318, 320; and witchcraft, 206, 208; near sacred wells, 220.
• Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor, 147, 148, 152, 158, 287.
• Rūz Kāsim, 29.
• Rūs Khidr, 29.
• S.
• Sacred-fires, see fires.
• Sacrifices, 197, 205, 319.
• Sagittarius, 15.
• Sainhain, feast of, 187.
• Sanctuary, at Stonehenge, 55.
• St. Aelian, Derbyshire, 216.
• St. Blaze (“Blayse,” “Blazeus”), anniversary of, 184.
• St. Burian, Cornwall, 267, 271.
• St. Claire, 140.
• St. Cleer, holy well at, 229.
• St. Cuthbert, Cornwall, 228.
• St. Herbot, sacrifices to, 199.
• St. John’s Day, festivals on, 230.
• St. John’s Eve, fire customs, 192.
• St. Just, Cornwall, stone circle at, 277.
• St. Justin, 140.
• St. Martin, feast of, 186.
• St. Medan, holy well at Kirkmaiden, 229.
• St. Michael’s Mount, 40.
• St. Nicodemus, sacrifices to, 199.
• St. Peter’s, Rome, 32.
• St. Renan, monuments at, 100.
• Salisbury, position of cathedral, 65; solstitial custom at, 43.
• Saracens, star-worship among the, 249.
• Sardonyx, employment of, 32.
• Sarsens, stones, 15, 45, 79, 91.
• Scandinavia, temples in, 63.
• Schübeler, Prof., 202.
• Scorpionis α (Antares), 117, 142, 273, 310, 311.
• Scotland, May-year in, 109, 186, 321; types of stone circles in, 36.
• Scott, Sir Walter, 40.
• Seasons, astronomical and vegetational, 212.
• Semites, beliefs concerning the stars, 249; in Britain, 243, 246; temple practices among the, 240, 248, 256.
• Sennacherib, May temple of, 308.
• Sergi, Prof., 237.
• Serpentis α, 117.
• Sesheta, 2.
• Set, British equivalent of, 195.
• Shakspeare, 204.
• Sheat, see Pegasi β.
• Shenn Laa Boaldyn (Manx May-day), 204.
• Shinto, cult of, 3.
• Shovel Down, Devon, 158, 160, 314.
• Shrines, trilithons as, 37.
• Shrove Tuesday, 182.
• Sight-lines, 316; different methods of marking, 107; methods of using, 41.
• Silbury (or Sidbury), 66.
• Sirius, see Canis Majoris α.
• Skins, offerings of, 318.
• “Slaughter Stone,” the, 90, 93.
• Smith, Colonel Hamilton, 148.
• Smith, Dr. J., 52.
• Smith, Robertson, Prof., 243, 245, 248, 255, 257.
• Society of Antiquaries, 69.
• Solstices, the, 13, 108, 120; azimuths of sunrise at, 43, 291; at Palenque and Chichén Itza, 308; celebration of, 40, 193; date of introduction into Britain, 313; determination of, 16; in Egypt, 3, 13; in France, 99, 103, 104; in Morocco and Britain, 243; provided for at British monuments, 93, 129, 176, 274, 280, 290, 312, 314; sunrise at, 36; warning stars for, 117, 314; worship at, 259, 320.
• Spence, Mr., 35, 123, 128, 254, 285.
• Spica, see Virginis α.
• Stalldon Moor, 150, 163.
• Standen (near Hungerford), 79.
• Stanton Drew, 166, 167, 170, 173; cove at, 37; dates of, 174; dimensions of circles at, 171; May-year at, 309; solstitial worship at, 314.
• Stars, changes in declination of, 42, 109; northern, 114; heliacal risings of, 108; reason for observations of, 42; worship of, 139, 249. See clock-stars.
• Stenness, 35, 123, 218; azimuths of sunrise at, 120; observations required at, 129; seasons provided for at, 127, 131, 309, 314.
• Sterility, 239, 256.
• Stirling, festivals at, 238.
• Stockwell, 67, 111, 129, 176.
• Stone-age, 75.
• Stonehenge, 41, 50, 51, 52, 58, 88, 91; amplitudes of stars at, 11; apparent paths of stars at, 7; architecture of, 83; avenue, 63, 65; axis, 55, 60; azimuth of sunrise at, 120; the “Cursus” at, 319; custom at, 43; date of, 62, 67, 93; desecration of, 47; erection of, 84; “Leaning Stone” at, 69, 84; May-year at, 109; origin of stones, 90; position of, 65; rededication of, 109; solstitial temple, 108, 314; “Stanenges,” 52; tools found at, 74.
• Stones, as azimuth marks, 110; anointing of, 255; cresset-, 190, 256; holed, 37, 128, 282, 285, 286, 316, 318; hollowed, 192, 248, 323; Semitic, sacred, 244; unhewn and worked, 321.
• Stone-worship, proscribed, 271.
• Stripple Stones, Cornwall, 36, 292.
• Stukeley, Dr., 37, 53, 134, 289.
• Sunrise, apparent, 120; azimuth of, 64; determination of, 118; observation of, 63, 66, 99; November, 93.
• Sunset, determination of, 118; the May-, 93.
• Sycamore, 204.
• T.
• “Tan Heol,” 40.
• “Tan St. Jean,” 40.
• Tanta Fair, 28, 29.
• Tara, perpetual fire at temple of, 191.
• Tauri α, Aldebaran, 315.
• Tavistock, 147.
• Temenos mound, at Stonehenge, 47, 93.
• Temple-axis, fixing of, 1.
• Temples, associated, 297; Egyptian, 55; solstitial, 313.
• Thebes (Egypt), 8, 108; amplitudes at, 11; stars used at, 299, 304; May-year at, 247, 305.
• Thebes (Greece), 299.
• Theodolite, adjustments of, 172, 329.
• Thomas, Mr., 277, 282.
• Thorn-trees, associated with holy wells, 221.
• Thoth, 259.
• Thurnham, Dr., 63.
• Tigris, rise of the, 30.
• Tirehan, 214.
• Tissington, Derbyshire, 228.
• Tlachtaga, the fire of, 187.
• Tombs, dolmens not intended for, 254.
• Torches, 317.
• Toutates, 260.
• Track-lines, 149.
• Tradition, 179.
• “Treachery of the Long Knives,” 95.
• Trees, sacred, 200, 220, 257; Arabian worship of, 245; Semitic, 244, 246.
• Tregaseal, 277, 278, 280, 309, 314.
• Trilithons, 81; at Stonehenge, 58; functions of, 37, 41; in Japan, 3.
• Trippet stones, 36.
• Tristis rock, 158.
• Trowlesworthy, 158, 161, 162.
• Truthwall Common, 277.
• Tubberpatrick, well at, 225.
• Tumuli, 93, 102, 254; at Stenness, 131.
• Turkey, calendar in, 29.
• U.
• Ursae Majoris α, 295, 298.
• V.
• Vallum, 47, 291.
• Vega, see Lyrae α.
• “Via Sacra,” 60, 155, 163.
• Via, stones of, 128.
• Virginis α, (Spica), 108, 142, 299, 305, 315.
• W.
• Wales, wells near churches, 229.
• Warning-stars, 108; in Britain, 310; in Greece, 311.
• Water, near holy places, 246, 317.
• Wells, associated with trees, 219, 220; curative powers, 235; sacred associations, 206, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 228, 229, 234, 257, 273; “Waking the Well,” 228; wishing, 215; worship at, 215, 233; worship, modern, 221, 223, 225, 226.
• Westermarck, Mr., 319.
• Westmorland, May-day customs, 207.
• Whitethorn, 202.
• Whitley, Rev. D., 255.
• Whitsuntide, 185, 196.
• Willow, blossoms used on Palm Sunday, 211.
• Wiltshire Archæological Society, 50.
• Windle, Mr., 37.
• Witchcraft, 206, 212, 216.
• Witchen-tree, 206.
• Wood-Martin, Mr., 213, 214, 220, 223, 233.
• Woon Gumpus Common, 282.
• Worship, British and Semitic, 252; flower-, 203; sun- and star-, 260; well-, 228.
• Worth, Mr. Hansford, 146, 148, 150, 153, 164.
• Worth, Mr., R.N., 147, 148.
• “Wroth silver,” payment of, 188.
• Y.
• Year, the astronomical, 16, 25; the Celtic, 186; division of the, 18; the Julian, 23; the lunar-, in Babylon, 24; the solstitial-, 19, 139, 261; the vegetation-, 18, 19, 25, 97, 109, 203.
• Yucatan, the temples of, 33.