Surnames as a Science

CHAPTER VIII.

But inasmuch as I have not had the same opportunity of collating and examining the mass of Italian surnames that I have had in the case of those of France, I propose to shape the comparison into a rather different form, and, without departing from its etymological purpose, to endeavour to give it something of an ethnical interest as well. This admixture of German blood could not fail to have an influence—and, we can hardly doubt, an invigorating influence—upon the character of the softer and more receptive Italian race. It may not then be without interest—though we need not attach more importance to the result than it deserves—to endeavour to trace the result of that admixture in the names of illustrious Italians. For it is somewhat remarkable how many of the men most distinguished in the council and in the field, in science, literature, and in art, bear names which testify to a German origin. And we are even able, in certain cases, to indicate with a fair amount of probability the particular race of Germans from whom these names may be taken to be derived. The rule laid down by Max Müller (Science of Language) that words in Italian beginning with gua, gue, gui, may be taken to be pretty certainly of German origin, holds good also of Italian names. Now this form of gua, gue, gui represents the prefix of g before w, which was a special characteristic of the Franks, as it is still of their descendants, the French, in such names as Guillaume (=Gwillaume) for Wilhelm or William. In some cases, though more rarely, this prefix of g, in accordance with a High German tendency, becomes a hard c and is represented by q, as in Queringi and perhaps Quirini. Such names then as Gualdo, Guardi, Guido, Guicciardini, Guarnerius, may be taken as certainly of German, and I think, more especially of Frankish origin.

To begin with the names of warriors, the list may well be headed by that of the old hero, Garibaldi. Garibald (gar, spear, and bald, bold) was a well-known Old German name, being borne, among others, by a Duke in Bavaria in the sixth century, by six bishops in the three centuries following, and, what is more to the purpose, by two Lombard kings in Italy. We ourselves have the name in its Saxon form (gor for gar) as Gorbold and Corbould (O.G. Kerbald), and the French have it as Gerbault. "Blind old Dandalo" may also be claimed as German; Dandalo, corresponding with an O.G. Dantulo, being formed as a diminutive from the Old German name Dando. I have elsewhere made the suggestion, which I venture here to reproduce, that Bonaparte may also be a name of German origin, slightly changed to give it a seeming meaning in Italian. The case stands thus. Bonibert and Bonipert are found as Old Frankish names, respectively of the seventh and the ninth centuries. In that part of Italy which was overrun by the Franks, namely at Turin, is to be found the present Italian name Boniperti, which we can hardly doubt to be derived from the Old Frankish Bonipert. Now from this part of Italy came originally also the Bonapartes, and the question is simply this, May not the name Bonaparte originate in an attempt to give something of an Italian meaning to this other name Boniperti, which would convey no sense to an Italian ear? The French still have the Old Frankish name as Bompart (changing n before a labial into m, as they do in Edimbourg for Edinburgh); there was a vice-admiral of that name who proved his courage by engaging, though unsuccessfully, an English frigate of superior force. And we—or at any rate the Americans—have it in a Saxon form as Bonbright (Suffolk Surnames). And very appropriate, if we were to translate it, would be the meaning—bona, a slayer, and bert or pert, illustrious.

The two distinguished families of the Adimari at Florence and of the Grimaldi at Genoa both give evidence of German descent in their names (O.G. Adimar and Grimwald); as regards the latter indeed it is to be traced historically, though the position of the present representative, as ruler of the principality of Monaco and recipient of its doubtful gains, is perhaps hardly in accordance with the higher traditions of his family. The name, Alphonso, of a Duke of Ferrara in the middle ages, was one given also by the Germans to a still more illustrious lineage in Spain. Alphonso is a contraction of the O.G. Adalfuns (adal, noble, funs, eager). The Saxon form of funs being fus, it seems to me that our name Adolphus may be properly Adel-fus, and not a latinization of Adolph. German also are the names of the two great rival factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Guelph being a Frankish form of Welf or Welp, Eng. whelp, and the Ghibellines deriving from an Old German name Gibilin, traced by Mone to a Burgundian origin. Thus the Guelphs, given originally by Germany to Italy, were afterwards transplanted again to Germany, and thence to England, to rule far above all factions. And again, we find the Bonaparte, whose ancestor was expelled from Italy as a Ghibelline, come forward to pursue on a grander scale his hereditary feud with the Guelphs.

In the names of scholars and men of science the German element is very strongly represented. We find Accolti (O.G. Achiolt for Agiovald[50]), Alamanni (O.G. Alaman), Algarotti (O.G. Algar for Adelgar), Ansaldi (O.G. Ansald for Ansovald), Audifredi (O.G. Audifred), Bertrandi (O.G. Bertrand), Gualdo (O.G. Waldo), Giraldi (O.G. Girald), Gosselini (O.G. Gosselin), Guicciardini (O.G. Wichard), Lanzi (O.G. Lanzi), Lamberti (O.G. Lambert for Landbert), Manfredi (O.G. Manfred), Maraldi (O.G. Marald), Odevico (O.G. Ottwic for Audewic), Orlandi (O.G. Arland for Hariland), Raimondi (O.G. Raimund), Rolandini (O.G. Roland for Rodland), Roberti (O.G. Robert for Rodbert), Sacchi (O.G. Sacco), Quirini (O.G. Guerin, Werin). We may add to the list the name of the historian Sismondi (Sigismund), who, though born at Geneva, must, I apprehend, have been of Italian origin. The name in its uncontracted form, Sigismondi, is also found in Italy.

Among the names of distinguished explorers and discoverers, we have Americus (O.G. Emrich), who gave his name to America, and Belzoni (O.G. Belzo). German are also the names of the Pope Aldobrandini (O.G. Aldebrand), and of the philanthropist Odeschalchi (O.G. Odalschalch), whose name, if translated, would be the appropriate one of "Servant of his country."

The painters are not quite so strongly represented as the men of letters and science, the two principal names being those of Lionardo (O.G. Leonhard) and of Guido. Guido is one of the Frankish forms to which I have before alluded, and is formed by the prefix of g to the name Wido or Wito,—it was not an uncommon name among the Old Franks, and is found at present among the French as Videau, Viteau, and Guidé. The ill-omened name of the assassin Guiteau I take to be from the same origin, and to be of French extraction. So also may be our own name Widow, which corresponds with a Wido of about the twelfth or thirteenth century in the Liber Vitæ. There is another Italian name, Guidubaldi, that of a Duke of Urbino, in the middle ages, formed on the same stem with the addition of bald, bold, and corresponding with a Frankish Guidobald. The word concerned seems to be most probably Goth. vidus, O.H.G. witu, wood, used in a poetical sense for weapon.[51]

Other names of painters are Baldi (O.G. Baldo), Baldovin(etti) (O.G. Baldwin), Anselmi (O.G. Anshelm), Ansuini (O.G. Answin), Aldighiero (O.G. Aldegar), Algardi (O.G. Alagart), Alberti (O.G. Albert for Adalbert), Alloisi (O.G. Alois = Alwis), Ghiberti (O.G. Gibert), Gherardini (O.G. Gerard), Gennari (O.G. Genear), Ghirlandaio (O.G. Gerland), Tibaldi (O.G. Tiebald for Theudobald). Also Guardi, another of the Frankish forms before referred to, representing an O.G. Wardi, and the same name as Eng. Ward, for which we find a corresponding A.S. Weard.

Of those eminent in the sister art of music, we have Castoldi (O.G. Castald for Castwald), and Frescobaldi. This last name does not figure in Foerstemann's list, but we can hardly doubt its German origin, bald being a typical German ending, while Fresc, as a Teutonic name, is found in the Fresc(ingas), early Saxon settlers in England, another instance of the common tie which binds all Teutonic names together. We may add to the list, as the name of a living composer, Guglielmo = Wilhelm or William. Among those who were accessory to music as instrument-makers, we have Stradivarius and Guarnerius (O.G. Guarner for Warinhar) corresponding with our own names Warriner and Warner, and present French names Ouarnier and Guernier. It will not be out of keeping with what we should expect if we find the German element develop itself in the conception rather than in the execution of music, and in the combination of science and patience which led to the success of the old instrument-makers.

But it is in the names of immortal singers that we find the German element most conspicuously represented. Dante himself bears a name which, though not in itself German, may yet have been given to Italy by the Germans, while as to his second title, Alighieri, there seems hardly any doubt of its German origin.[52] Dante is a contraction of Durante, which seems to be derived most naturally from Latin durans, and it might seem something of a paradox to suppose a Latin race to be indebted to the Germans for a Latin name. And yet I think that there are some grounds for supposing it to be a name adopted by the early Frankish converts to Christianity, and by them transmitted to the Italians. For we find Durant, Durand, and Durann as not uncommon German names, apparently Frankish, in the eighth and the ninth centuries. And we find the word moreover made up into a German compound as Durandomar (mar, famous). The French have moreover at present, derived we may presume from their Frankish ancestors, another name, Durandard, similarly formed (hard, fortis). Now this is precisely the same principle as that on which the early Frankish converts, as we find from the Pol. Irm. and the Pol. Rem., used to form many of their names, taking a word of Christian import from the Latin or otherwise, and mixing it up with the Old German compounds to which they had been accustomed. Thus, for an example, we find that a woman called Electa, which we can hardly doubt means "elect," gives to her son the name of Electard, a similar compound to Durandard. There seems then, on the whole, a fair amount of probability for this suggestion, which would moreover sufficiently account for the manner in which the name is common to France, Italy, Germany, and England. The French have it as Durand, Durant, and Durandeau (besides Durandard already noted); the Italians as Durante, Duranto, and Durandi; the Germans as Durand and Dorand; and we ourselves as Durand and Durant. Our names came to us no doubt through the Normans,—there is a Durand in the Roll of Battle Abbey, and it is not till after this period that we find it as an English name.

For the German origin of Tasso a rather stronger case can be made out, Tasso and Taso being found as ancient German names, and the latter in particular being a Lombard leader in Italy. But there was another Lombard called Taso, who, as a man of remarkable sanctity of life, and as the founder of a monastery at Volterra, was eminently likely to leave a name behind him in Italy. Tasso is still a current name in that country, and our surname Tassie, along with the French Tassy, may be taken to be the same name. Both we and the French have also Tassell, formed from it and corresponding with Tassilo, the name of a Bavarian king of the sixth century. The meaning of the word has not been satisfactorily explained, and this may be one of the cases in which the original word has either greatly changed in meaning, or else has perished out of the language.

Another name which we may take pretty certainly to be of German origin is Leopardi, corresponding with the O.G. Leopard, for Liubhard (liub, love, and hard, fortis). There was a Lombard named Leopard who was abbot of Nonantola in Italy in the tenth century. Then we have Amalungi, from the O.G. Amalung, fifth century, a patronymic form, "son of Amal or Amala," the (perhaps mythical) forerunner of the Goths. The French have the name, Hamel and Ameling, and we have Hammill, Hamling, and Hambling. This is another of the cases in which a name has outlived its etymon; we know that amal was a word of honourable meaning, but as to its origin even the patient research of the Germans has failed to find a clue. The name Amalthius may also be taken as certainly German, from amal as above, and the common Old German ending thius, dio, or tio, servant, though we do not find a name to correspond in the Altdeutsches Namenbuch. There was also a painter Amalteo, whose name is a variation of the same. Another name which I take to be German, without finding the ancient name to correspond, is Boiardo, boi (supposed by the Germans to mean Bavarian) being a common prefix in Old German names, and hard one of the most common endings. The French have, among other names derived from their Frankish ancestors, the corresponding names Boyard and Poyard, and we ourselves have Byard, which I take to be from the same origin. Then we have Berni (O.G. Berno), Bernini (O.G. Bernin), and Beroaldus (O.G. Berowald).

There remain yet two distinguished names, Alfieri and Guarini. The former may be from the O.G. Alfheri, alf, elf, and heri, warrior, the sense contained in the former word being perhaps that of occult wisdom. Hence it would correspond with our surnames Albery and Aubery, Alfheri and Albheri being convertible Old German names. Guarini may, with somewhat more of certainty, be taken to be from the Old Frankish name Guarin, formed on the principle already referred to on other Old German names, Warin and Warno. Hence our names Warren and Warne, and the French Guérin. The Wearningas, "sons or descendants of Wearn," are among the early Saxon settlers referred to in Chapter IV., and Warin is found as an early name in the Liber Vitæ. There are some other names which may very possibly be of German origin, but the form of which is not sufficiently distinct to make the connection generally intelligible.

I conclude this chapter with a suggestion as to the possibly German origin of one who but of late occupied a considerable place in European politics, viz. Gambetta. This name is of Italian origin, and I venture to think may be one of those given to Italy by the Germans, and perhaps most probably by the Lombards. There was a Gambad who ruled over Ticino in the ancient duchy of Milan, and was subsequently driven out by Pertharit, who thereupon became the ruler of the whole of Lombardy. Gambad seems to be probably a Lombard form of Ganbad (gan, magic, or fascination, and bad, war), or it might be of Gandbad (gand, wolf), both ancient German stems. This name Gambad would in French take the form of Gambette,[53] and in Italian of Gambetta. It would be curious if this name were one left behind by the Lombards (or possibly even the Franks) in their invasion of Italy, and restored to France to rouse her to a gallant though unavailing attempt to stem the tide of another German invasion. And very suitable too would be the name, in the sense of magic or fascination, to one whose energy and eloquence acted as such a potent spell to revive the drooping courage of his countrymen.

CHAPTER IX.

I have referred, at page 75, to Lappenberg's theory, that Franks, Lombards, and Frisians were associated with the Saxons in the early invasions of England. His theory seems to be based only upon the general relations which subsisted between these different tribes, and the various other occasions on which they are found to have been acting in concert. I have, in a previous chapter, referred to the subject so far as the Franks are concerned, and endeavoured to show that there were in Anglo-Saxon times, and that there are in our names at present, certain peculiarities which are in accordance with Frankish forms, and so far favour the theory that Franks were among the early settlers.

There is another peculiarity which seems to be found in some of the names of Anglo-Saxon times, the form ch for (as I suppose) g, as in such a name as Cissa (Chissa) and Cippa (Chippa). Cissa I should suppose to be the same name as Gisa, that of a bishop in the time of Edward the Confessor, and Cippa the same as Gyp in Gypeswich. May not this be a Frisian form? Chippo comes before us as a name apparently Frisian.

CHIPP, CHIPPING, CHIPMAN, CHEESE, CHESSON, CHESMAN, CHESNUT, CHURN, CHIRNIE, CHITTY.

If the above be correct, Chipp, corresponding with an Anglo-Saxon Cippa found in Cippenham, a Ceapa found in Ceapan hlæw, and Cypa in Cypingas, also with a Chippo probably Frisian, would be another form of Gibb or Gipp, geban, to give. And Cheese, which appears as Chese in the Hundred Rolls, may represent Cissa as another form of Gisa (gis, hostage). There is a present Friesic name Tsjisse, which, though it looks more like an attempt to represent a sneeze than anything else, I take to have the sound of Chissa. Chesson may be taken to be from the ending in en, p. 27, and Chesnut might be from the ending noth, bold, frequent in Anglo-Saxon names. Churn and Chirney, corresponding with an O.G. Chirno, and perhaps with the Cearningas among the early settlers, might come in here as another form of gern, eager. And Chitty, perhaps the same name as that found in the Cidingas, may possibly be, on the same principle, another form of Giddy, Kiddy, or Kitty (stem gid, hilaris).

MUMM, MUMMY, MUMMERY.

There are a few Old German names, mostly of women, in Mam and Mum. And there are also two Old Frankish women's names, Mamma and Momma (apparently overlooked by Foerstemann), in the Pol. Irm. It seems difficult to take these names as from anything else than the widely-spread word signifying mother. In an age when names sat much more lightly than they do now, one might fancy such a word superseding a woman's original name. I can even conceive the possibility of such a name, its origin having somewhat passed out of sight, being given in a masculine form to a son. We have several instances in the Pol. Irm. of such a custom; for instance, where, the mother being called Genesia, the son is called Genesius, and the mother being called Deodata, the son is called Deodatus. However, this cannot be taken for anything more than a somewhat speculative suggestion. As in present use, the French name Mumm is well known in connection with dry champagne; the Germans have Muhm, and though I am not quite certain of Mumm as an English name, I think we may count upon Mummy (ending in i, p. 24). Mummery might be a compound (hari, warrior), but from the facility with which n passes into m, I should be more disposed to take it to be a corruption of Munnery, corresponding with an O.G. Munihari, Goth. munan, to think.

BODY, FREEBODY, GOODBODY, LIGHTBODY, PEABODY, HANDSOMEBODY.

Body I take to be from O.N. bodi, envoy or messenger. It is found as an ending in many ancient names, particularly among the Saxons. And in our surnames it appears sometimes as representing ancient names, and sometimes more probably as a sobriquet of a later period. In the "Household Expences" of Eleanor, Countess of Montford, A.D. 1265, the names of her three messengers are given as Treubodi, Gobithesty, and Slingaway. These are all sobriquets,—Treubody is "trusty messenger," Gobithesty is from A.S. sti, a footpath, hence the name may be equivalent to "short-cut," and the last explains itself. Our name Handsomebody has clearly been a sobriquet of the same kind, and, referring to the older sense of "handsome," means a handy or useful messenger. Peabody, which I think may have been originally Pipbody, from pipr, swift, active, may also have been a sobriquet. So may Goodbody and Lightbody, but it is by no means certain. We might take our Lightfoot to have been a sobriquet, but we find a corresponding name, Lytafus (fus, foot) on Roman pottery. Freebody probably represents the O.G. Frithubodo, compounded with frith, peace.

BRAGG, BRACKIE, BRAY, PRAY, BRAGAN, BRACKEN, BRAIN, BRACKING, BRACKETT, BRAYMAN, BRAKEMAN, BREWIN.

There are two different origins from which this stem might be derived, A.S. brego, king, ruler, and A.S. bracan, to break, subdue, crush, the former being perhaps preferable upon the whole. There are but very few names in Old German, and Foerstemann does not make any suggestion as to the origin.

A.S. Bræg (found in Brægeshale), Bracca (found in Braccanheal). O.G. Brachio, Thuringian, sixth century. Eng. Bragg, Brackie, Bray, Pray.

Ending in en, p. 27.

A.S. Bregen (found in Bregnesford). Eng. Bragan, Bracken, Brain.

Ending in el, prob. diminutive.

A.S. Brakel (found in Brakelesham). Eng. Breakell.

Patronymic.

Eng. Bracking.

Compounds.

(Had, war?), A.S. Breged (found in Bregedeswere)—Eng. Brackett. (Man, vir), Eng. Brakeman, Brayman (Mod. G. Brackmann, French Braquemin). (Wine, friend), A.S. Bregowin (Archbishop of Canterbury)—Eng. Brewin.

LORD, LORDING.

We may take the above to be the same as an A.S. Lorta and Lorting, p. 100. And whatever may be the origin, it is certainly not A.S. hlaford, Eng. "lord." There are two isolated names in the Altdeutsches Namenbuch, Laurad and Lorad, both seventh century, of which the Anglo-Saxon name seems not improbably to be a contraction. The word concerned might be A.S. lâr, lore, learning, Old North. lærdr (larad?), learned. Stark however seems to take Laurad and Lorad to be Celtic. But in the genealogy of the sons of Woden in the Edda of Snorro occurs the name Loride, which, though Snorro's names are not always trustworthy, seems to point to the existence of an ancient Teutonic name corresponding with those in the Altdeutsches Namenbuch, and so far to favour the derivation which I have suggested.

STUDD, STOTT, STOUT, STUTTER, STODDART, STUDEARD. STITT, STEED, STADD, STIDOLPH.

We find Anglo-Saxon names to account for all the names of the former of these two groups, viz., Stut, Stuter (her, warrior), and Stutard (hard, fortis). The word concerned does not seem to have anything to do with Eng. "stout," which seems to have lost an l, and to have been originally stolt. The group is no doubt parallel with the second group, which is more distinctly represented in Old German names, and which may be referred to O.N. stedia, firmare, staddr, constitutus, A.S. stide, stith, firm, steadfast; our Stidolph corresponding with an O.G. Stadolf, and a Stithuulf in the Liber Vitæ.

FOGG, FOGGO, FUDGE, FEW.

There are Old German names Focco and Fucco, for which Foerstemann proposes O.N. fok, flight. And there is a Fuca, rather probably a corresponding name, on Roman pottery. Among the Anglo-Saxons we have Focingas, early settlers in Kent. Also Focga and Fucg, deduced from place-names, p. 99. Foerstemann seems to take this as the stem on which is formed fugal, fowl, bird.

FLAGG, FLACK, FLECK, FLUCK, FLY, FLEA, FLEW.

The Fleccingas are among the early settlers inferred by Mr. Kemble. And there are also Anglo-Saxon names Flegg, Flecg, and Flogg, deduced from place-names, p. 99. The name Flôki, of a Northman in the Landnamabôk, also comes in here. There is also another Northman called Flugu-Grimr, "Fly or Flyer Grim," a kind of inverted surname. The origin may be taken to be A.S. fleogan, O.N. fliuga, to fly. And this group may be taken to be fundamentally parallel with the last.

CLEAN, CLINE, KLYNE.

There is a Clen in the genealogy of the Merovingian kings, and there is perhaps an A.S. Clena to be deduced from the place-names Clenanford, Clenancrundel, &c. It may probably be from A.S. clêne, clean, pure. "The original sense seems to have been bright."—Skeat. This may probably be the sense in names.

SWEARS, SWEARING, SWIRE, SQUIRE, SQUARE, SQUAREY, SQUIRRELL.

The stem swar, swer, in O.G. names, is referred by Foerstemann to O.H.G. suari, weighty, important, Goth. swers, honourable. There is an A.S. Sweor found in a place-name, p. 102, and there is an O.G. Suaring corresponding with our Swearing. Also a Suara on Roman pottery, which I take to be German, and to represent the stem of which Suaring is a patronymic. I take Squire and Square to be phonetic corruptions of Swire and Swear, and Squirrell to be properly Swirrell, a diminutive.

LUMB, LUMP, LUMPKIN.

Lumbe is also a present German name, and seems to be the same as an O.G. Lumpe, which Stark takes to be a contraction of some compound name, perhaps Lundbert. Lump and the diminutive Lumpkin are from Suffolk Surnames, and may be German and not English.

KNELL, NELLY, NILL, KNELLER.

Of the Cnyllingas, settled in Northamptonshire, I find no further trace in Anglo-Saxon times, nor anything to correspond in Old German names. The name is also a very uncommon one at present, the above Knell, Nelly, and Nill being all taken from Suffolk Surnames, though Knell at all events was an English name. Kneller, as the name of the painter, is of Dutch origin; it seems to be a compound from this stem (hari, warrior). The origin may perhaps be found in O.N. hnalla, to beat.

KNAPP, KNAPPING, KNIBB, KNIPE, KNIPPING, NAF NAPP, NAPKIN, KNIFE, KNYVETT.

One of the oldest Low German names on record is Hnaf, mentioned in the "Traveller's Song," written, as supposed, about the fifth century. There is a corresponding O.G. Hnabi, eighth century, the origin being, no doubt, A.S. cnapa, cnafa, son, boy. To this may be placed our names Knapp, Napp, and the patronymic Knapping. (The name Naf, in Suffolk Surnames, may possibly not be English.) I also take the A.S. Cnebba[54] to come in here, also Hnibba, found in Hnibbanleah (Hnibba's lea), and Nybba, found in Nybbanbeorh (Nybba's barrow), and so connect also our names Knibb, Knipe, and Knipping. Stark also brings in here the name Cniva, of a Gothic king of the third century, and Cnivida, also the name of a Goth, placed by Foerstemann to A.S. cnif, knife. If this be correct, our name Knife might also come in here, parallel with Knipe, and also Knyvet as probably a diminutive. Also Napkin, another diminutive = Germ. knabchen.

PIM, PYM.

The father of the Lombard king Rachis was called Pimo. There is also a Pymma about the tenth century in the Liber Vitæ. As to the origin of the name, I am unable to offer any suggestion. It may be, as Stark opines, a contraction of some compound name.

WAMBEY, WAMPEN.

Wamba was the name of a West-Gothic king in the seventh century, and there was also a deacon of the same name a few years earlier. I do not know of it as an Anglo-Saxon name, but I suppose Scott must have had some authority for introducing it as the name of the jester in Ivanhoe. The only derivation that can be suggested is from the Goth. wamba, belly, giving it the meaning of "paunchey." But it was not a nickname in the case of the Gothic king, for he bore it upon his coins, and it is difficult, as Stark observes, to suppose such a name for a king. Finding, however, on certain of his coins the variation Wanba, Stark is inclined to think that it may be a contraction of some name such as Wanbert. Was it by literary intuition that Scott pitched upon such a name for the jester, or did he know of its supposed meaning of "paunchey"?

The name may be represented in our Wambey, though it is perhaps quite as likely to be from some Danish place-name in by, such as Wanby or Wandby. Wampen, however, if there is such a stem, might be placed to it.

STRANG, STRONG, STRANK, STRANGWARD, STRANGWICK, STRINGLE, STRINGFELLOW.

There are two A.S. forms, strang and streng, represented in the above. The only Anglo-Saxon names that I can find are a Stranglic dux in a charter of Ina, and a Streng, found in Strengeshô, "Streng's grave-mound." Stranglic is the A.S. stranglic, strong, and looks like a sobriquet which had superseded his original name. Streng might be the same as far as it is itself concerned, but there is an O.G. Strangulf (ulf, wolf) which, along with our own names Strangward and Strangwick, strongly suggests an ancient baptismal name, and a formation in accordance with the Teutonic system. The last name, Stringfellow, must have been a sobriquet,—it probably represents a mediæval Strengfelaw, and has been rather curiously corrupted, owing to the meaning of streng not being recognised.

STRAY, STRAW, STRETCH, STREEK, STRAIN, STRICKETT, STRAIGHT.

Closely allied to strang and streng are A.S. strac and strec, violent, powerful, brave, whence I take the above. The only ancient names to correspond are an O.G. Strago, ninth century, and Strocgo, eighth century. Strain and Straight represent respectively the forms Stragin and Stragget, formed with the endings in en and in et referred to in Chapter II.

STARK, STARKIE, STARR, STARCH, STURGE, STURGIN, STURGEON, STERICKER.

From the A.S. stearc, sterc, O.H.G. starah, starh, stiff, strong, I take the above. This form starc seems formed by metathesis from the above strac,—indeed, all the three forms, strang, strack, and stark, are etymologically very closely allied. This stem enters distinctly into the Teutonic system, but besides the simple form Stark, corresponding with O.G. Starco and Staracho, we have only Stericker, corresponding with an O.G. Starcher (her, warrior).

EAVESTAFF, LANGSTAFF, WAGSTAFF, HACKSTAFF, SHAKESTAFF, COSTIFF.

These names ending in staff might naturally be taken to have been sobriquets, to be classed along with Shakespear, Breakspear, and other names of the same kind. But as regards two of them at least, Hackstaff and Shakestaff, there may be something more to be said. There is an ending staf in Teutonic names, for which Grimm, referring to Gustaf, thinks of O.H.G. stab, A.S. staf, staff,—in the sense, as I should suppose, of baton, or staff of office. There are only discovered as yet two Old German names with this ending, Chustaff and Sigestab. The former, which seems to be from cunst or cust, science, learning, may be the original of the Swedish Gustaf, and possibly of Costiff, one of the curious names gathered by Mr. Lower. Corresponding with the O.G. Sigestab, we find an A.S. Sigistef, a moneyer of Coenwulf. And there is also a Hehstaf, witness to a charter (Thorpe, p. 69). Shakestaff, then, might be a not very difficult corruption of Sigestef (which in the form of Sicestaf would approach still nearer). And Hackstaff might represent the A.S. Hehstaf, in which the second h was no doubt strongly aspirated, and might be more like a hard c. I, however, only bring this forward as a possible explanation; there is quite as much to be said for the other view, unless other ancient names turn up.

NAGLE, NAIL, HARTNOLL, DARNELL, TUFFNELL, HORSENAIL, HOOFNAIL, ISNELL, BRAZNELL, COPPERNOLL.

There is in my view no more curious or puzzling set of names than those which, as above, are derived from nagel or nail, clavis. It appears to me, though the line is difficult to draw, that they may be divided into two groups, one of which is the representative of ancient baptismal names, and the other of surnames of a later, perhaps a mediæval, date.

Connected with the former we have Nagle and Nail, corresponding with an O.G. Nagal, ninth century, and an A.S. Negle and Næle, found in place-names, p. 101. Then there are two Old German compounds, Hartnagal (hard nail) and Swarnagal (heavy nail), respectively of the eighth and ninth centuries. The former of these two names we have as Hartnoll, and the Germans have it as Härtnagel. Then I find two more examples among the Anglo-Saxons, Spernægle in a charter of manumission at Exeter, and Dearnagle in a place-name, p. 98. Spernægle is "spear-nail," and Dearnagle is probably the same, from O.N. dörr, spear. The latter of these two names we seem to have as Darnell, and the Germans as Thürnagel. Then we have Tuffnell, which, as Mr. Lower mentions, was in the seventeenth century spelt Tufnaile, and might be taken to mean "tough-nail," but for this we find no corresponding ancient name. There is a Celtic Dufnal, to which, as being a name adopted from them by the Northmen, and so having an increased chance of being represented, it might perhaps be placed. But if this be the case (which I rather doubt), it would have nothing to do with the present group. The sense in these ancient names may be taken to be a warlike one, as in the case of other names having the meaning of point or edge, acies. We find Nægling as the name given by an Anglo-Saxon to his sword, in accordance with the ancient custom, prevalent both among the Celts and the Saxons, of giving names to weapons, and this assists to point the meaning as that of edge, acies. And it seems to me hardly necessary to assume, with Mone (Heldensage), any connection with the mythological smith, Weland.

Then there is another set of names of which we have a considerable number, and the Germans still more, which appear to have been given at a later period, and to be perhaps, at least in some cases, derived from trade. Such are Horsnail, and the corresponding German Rosnagel; Hoofnail, and the German Hufnagel; while there are others, such as Isnell (iron nail), Coppernoll (and Germ. Kupfernagel), about which I hardly know what to think.

HONE, HEAN, HEANEY, ONKEN, ENNOR, HONNER, HENFREY, ENRIGHT, ONWHYN, ENOUGH.

A very common stem in A.S. names is ean, the meaning of which remains yet unexplained. We seem to have received it both in the Low German form ean and the High German form aun or on. The Honingas (Oningas) among the early settlers must, I think, be placed to it. It is very apt to intermix with another stem an, to which I formerly placed a few names which I think should come in here.

Stem ean, en, aun, on.

A.S. Eana, Enna (found in Ennanbeorh), Hean (found in Heanspôl, &c). Also Onna (found in Onnandun). Hona, found in Honingas. Ona, Lib. Vit. O.G. Ono, Oni. Eng. Hean, Heaney, Hone. Fries. Onno.

Diminutive.

A.S. Honekyn (found in Honekyntûn, now Hankerton). Eng. Onken.

Compounds.

(Frid, peace), A.S. Eanfrith—O.G. Aunefrit, Onfred—Eng. Henfrey.[55] (Hari, warrior), O.G. Onheri—O.N. Onar—Eng. Honnor, Ennor. (Rad, Red, counsel), A.S. Eanred—O.G. Onrada—Eng. Enright (=Enrat?). (Wine, friend), A.S. Eanwini, Inwine (found in Inwines burg)—Eng. Onwhyn. (Wulf, wolf), A.S. Eanulf—O.G. Aunulf brother of Odoaker, fifth century—Eng. Enough. (Ward guardian), Eng. Onword.

IMPEY, EMPEY, HEMP, HAMP, HAMPER, HEMPER.

Mr. Kemble finds Impingas in Impington, in Cambridgeshire, though it would seem incorrectly, as far as the tribe or family is concerned, the name being only that of a man, Impin. The name Impa is found also in Ympanleage, in Worcestershire. A sufficient meaning may perhaps be found in A.S. impan, to plant, engraft. To this stem I place Impey, Hemp, and probably Hamp, while Hamper and Hemper may be compounds (hari, warrior). There is a stem umb in Old German names, which may perhaps claim relationship.

CAUNCE, CHANCE, CHANCEY, CHANCELL, CANSICK, KENSAL, KENSETT.

The Cenesingas, found by Kemble in Kensington, would, if the Anglo-Saxons had possessed the requisite letters, have been better represented by Kenzingas, being, as I take it, from a stem ganz, genz, kenz, referred by Foerstemann to ganz, integer. I am inclined to take our names Chance, Chancey, &c., to represent the form kanz in a softened form, come to us through the Normans. The forms of the name in the Roll of Battle Abbey, Kancey, Cauncy, and Chauncy, and the present French names, Cance, Chanceau, and Chanzy, seem to be in conformity with this view. The French seem to have some other names from the same stem, as Cançalon (O.G. Gansalin) and Gantzère (O.G. Gentsar). The forms Cansick, Kensal (both diminutives, and the latter answering to Chancel), and Kensett, may be taken to represent the native form of the stem as found in Kenzingas.

SNOAD, SNODIN, SNOWDEN (?), SNODGRASS.

Of the Snotingas, who gave the name to Snotingaham, now Nottingham, we have not many traces, either in Anglo-Saxon times or at present. There are three Anglo-Saxon names, Snode, Snodd, and Snoding, derived from place-names, p. 102. In Old German names it only occurs as the ending of two or three names of women. The meaning is to be found in A.S. snot, prudent, sagacious. The name Snodgrass may be a compound from this stem as a corruption of Snodgast, though no ancient correspondent has turned up,—compare Prendergrass, p. 114.

THRALE.

This is a very uncommon name; I never knew of an instance other than that of the brewer who is handed down to posterity as the friend of Johnson. So also in ancient times there is only one name on record, Thralo, for which Foerstemann proposes Old Friesic, thrall, swift, nimble.

EARWAKER, EDDIKER.

The curious-looking name Earwaker is no doubt the same as an Eueruacer (Everwacer), in Domesday, from evor, boar, and wacar, watchful, and it is of interest as supplying a missing link in the study of Old German names. For the Old German name corresponding to this appears as Eburacer, and while some other German writers have taken the ending to be acer (Eng. acre), Foerstemann has, rightly as it is proved, suggested that it is a contraction of wacer. Similarly the ancient name Odoacer, of the king of the Heruli, is proved by corresponding Anglo-Saxon names, Edwaker in a charter of manumission at Exeter, and Edwacer on coins minted at Norwich (A.S. ed = O.H.G. od), to be properly Odwacer. From this A.S. Edwaker may be our name Eddiker; and some others of our names, as Goodacre and Hardacre, may represent ancient names not yet turned up.[56] The second part of the compound, wacer (whence our Waker), is itself a very ancient stem, being found on the one hand in the Wacer(ingas), among the early Saxon settlers, and on the other in the name Vacir, probably Frankish, on Roman pottery.

SHAWKEY, CHALKEY, CHALK, CAULK, KELK, CHALKLEN, CALKING, CHALKER, CHAUCER.

We may take it that our name Shawkey (Shalkey) is the same as an A.S. Scealc, p. 101, and as an O.G. Scalco, from scalc, servant. And the question is, whether our names Caulk, Chalk, and Chalkey, corresponding with an A.S. Cealca (found apparently in Cealcan gemero), and our name Kelk, corresponding with an A.S. Celc, p. 98, may not be forms of the same name without the initial s. Or whether they may be, as I before suggested, from the tribe-name of the Chauci or Cauci, one of the peoples included in the Frankish confederation. Of such a stem, however, there is not any trace in the Altdeutsches Namenbuch, which one might rather expect to be the case, seeing how fully Old Frankish names are therein represented. However, I am not able to come to any definite conclusion respecting this stem, which the forms above cited show to be an ancient one. The French names Chaussy, Chaussée, Cauche, Cauchy, seem to be in correspondence, as also Chaussier, comparing with Chaucer, which, as a softened form, I think may have come through the Normans.