FOOTNOTES:
34 De Bell. Afr. 78.
35 Cicero, De Off. ii. 13. 45.
36 In a note to the French translation of Mommsen and Marquardt (xi. 105) von Domaszewski declares decidedly against the possibility that the equites sociorum were organized in alae. Writing in Pauly-Wissowa (s.v. Auxilia), he seems to consider that the auxiliary cavalry had adopted the formation before the close of the Republic, although the passages to which he refers, those from Cicero and the author of the Bell. Afr. which are given above, seem at least to be susceptible of a different interpretation.
37 For praefecti equitum cf. Caesar, Bell. Gall. iii. 26; iv. 11. They are not to be thought of as merely commanding turmae, since we have a decurion mentioned in Bell. Gall. i. 23.
38 This organization cannot have taken place earlier since it is obvious from Caesar’s narrative that during the Gallic campaigns no attempt was made to reduce the tribal contingents to units of a fixed size.
39 Caesar, Bell. Gall. i. 18.
40 [Caesar,] Bell. Gall. viii. 12. He is described as principe civitatis, praefecto equitum.
41 Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii. 59.
42 See Eph. Ep. v. 142, n. 1. The ala is only known from x. 6011.
43 The alae Flaviana, Petriana, Proculeiana, Tauriana, and Sebosiana all bear ‘Gallorum’ as a secondary title, and the alae Agrippiana, Longiniana, Picentiana, Pomponiana, and Rusonis seem to have been recruited in Gaul in the first century. The Gallic origin of the ala Atectorigiana is even more obvious. The ala Gallorum Indiana may possibly have a later origin, cf. Tac. Ann. iii. 42. The theory given above as to the origin of these regiments is unhesitatingly affirmed by von Domaszewski (Rangordnung, pp. 122, 123), but a little more evidence would certainly be advantageous.
44 Cf. v. 3366, x. 6309.
46 Von Domaszewski, in his edition, puts the treatise De munitione castrorum into the reign of Trajan. It is difficult to regard the evidence as decisive, but there can be little doubt that the information contained in the work is in any case applicable to the period under discussion.
47 Hyginus, 16. An Egyptian inscription, iii. 6581, also gives sixteen as the number of decurions in an ala.
48 iii. 6627.
49 Von Dom. Rangordnung, p. 35, and also p. 52 of the same writer’s commentary on Hyginus.
50 Arrian, Tactica, 18 αἱ δὲ δύο ταραντιναρχίαι ἱππαρχία, δώδεκα καὶ πεντακοσίων ἱππέων, ἥντινα Ῥωμαῖοι ἴλην καλοῦσιν. It is perhaps worth noting that Vegetius (ii. 14) gives 32 as the strength of a turma of his equites legionis.
51 The question will probably be found to turn on the strength of the contubernium. 30 and 42 suggest contubernia of 6. A small turma of 32 would suggest contubernia of 8 or 4 and a large turma of 40.
52 Hyginus, 28 ‘Cohors peditata miliaria habet centurias X … item peditata quingenaria habet centurias VI, reliqua ut supra’. This refers to the description of the cohortes equitatae in the preceding section in which it is stated that ‘Cohors equitata quingenaria habet centurias VI, reliqua pro parte dimidia’.
53 Josephus, Bell. Iud. iii. 67 τῶν δὲ σπειρῶν αἱ δέκα μὲν εἶχον ἀνὰ χιλίους πεζούς, αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τρισκαίδεκα ἀν’ ἑξακοσίους μὲν πεζούς, ἱππεῖς δ’ ἑκατὸν εἴκοσι. Nissen, who accepts the authenticity of these figures, assumes that both types of cohort mentioned had 120 cavalry attached to them, but it seems impossible to get this meaning from the Greek. See his article on the history of Novaesium in B. J. B. cxi-cxii. 41.
54 Thuc. v. 57.
55 Caesar, Bell. Gall. vii. 65 ‘trans Rhenum in Germaniam mittit ad eas civitates quas superioribus annis pacaverat equitesque ab his arcessit et levis armaturae pedites, qui inter eos proeliari consuerant’.
56 x. 4862: ‘… praef(ecto) cohort(is) Ubiorum peditum et equitum …’ The inscription dates from the end of the reign of Augustus.
57 viii. 2532, 18042: ‘Eq(uites) coh(ortis) Commagenorum. Difficile est cohortales equites etiam per se placere, difficilius post alarem exercitationem non displicere: alia spatia campi, alius iaculantium numerus … equorum forma, armorum cultus pro stipendi modo.’
58 Hyginus, 25-7.
59 iii. 6760 with Mommsen’s note. Cf. also the roll of the Cohors I Lusitanorum cited below.
60 Hyginus, 1, gives this as the size of a legionary contubernium, and the ‘four quaternions’ of Acts xii. 4 suggest that the same system prevailed among the troops of the client kingdom of Palestine.
61 For text and discussion see Mommsen in Eph. Ep. vii. 456-67. He considers that the papyrus supports 60 as the normal strength of a century in these cohortes equitatae.
62 The name is incorrect but convenient. Excluding D. xc, which is of an exceptional character, the diplomata cover the period from the reign of Nero (D. ci is the earliest, being apparently issued before 60) to 178 (D. lxxvi).
63 Tac. Ann. i. 17.
64 For example, the praemia are granted to soldiers who are not yet discharged in diplomata for 60 (ii), 74 (xi), 83 (xv), 84 (xvi), and 86 (xix). The latest example is dated in 105 (xxxiv).
65 e.g. a diploma for 114 (xxxix) mentions a wife, two sons, and a daughter, another for 134 (xlviii) four sons and two daughters.
66 The first to give the new wording for the auxiliaries is a British diploma of 146 (lvii), and it is universal after this date.
67 Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vii. 1022. Given with commentary by Wilcken and Mitteis in Papyruskunde, no. 453. Cf. also iii. 14632. The two recruits described on the roll of the Cohors I Lusitanorum as accepti ex legione II Traiana may have been transferred as a punishment, the militiae mutatio prescribed in the Digest, xlix. 16, as the appropriate penalty for various military offences.
68 The last diploma to mention children is dated 138 (cviii).
69 Wilcken and Mitteis, Papyruskunde, no. 459. I have assumed the correctness of Wilcken’s restorations of the text, which is very corrupt in places.
70 The phraseology of the diplomata issued to the Praetorians ‘ut etiam si peregrini iuris feminas matrimonio suo iunxerint, proinde liberos tollant ac si ex duobus civibus Romanis natos’—D. xii (76)—shows that in their case children born before their father’s discharge had always suffered under the disabilities created for the auxiliaries in the second century. The position of the legionaries is still uncertain.
71 Such regulations would be covered by the general statement of Suetonius, Vit. Aug. 49 ‘Quidquid autem ubique militum esset, ad certam stipendiorum praemiorumque formulam adstrinxit, definitis pro gradu cuiusque et temporibus militiae et commodis missionum’. The number of the diplomata seems to tell decisively against the suggestion that they were only issued to troops who had distinguished themselves by exceptional conduct in the field.
72 Von Dom. Sold, p. 226; id. Rangordnung, p. 68.
73 Tac. Hist. iv. 19. The Batavian cohorts demand ‘duplex stipendium, augeri equitum numerum’. Cf. viii. 18042, where the emperor gives as a reason for the superiority of the cavalry over the mounted infantry of the cohorts, ‘equorum forma, armorum cultus pro stipendi modo.’ I do not see how von Domaszewski concludes from the first passage that the pay of the infantry was one-third that of the legionaries, i.e. 75 denarii a year. Sold, p. 225.
74 I am assuming that the duplicarius really did receive twice the pay of the private, as his name implies, which is probable since he maintained two horses (Hyginus, 16). For the promotion of legionaries to this post cf. viii. 2354 cited below.
76 xii. 2231 ‘[D] Decmanio Capro sub praef(ecto) equit(um) alae Agrippian(ae)’; v. Suppl. 185 ‘Ti. Iulio C. f., Fab(ia) Viatori subpraef(ecto) cohortis III Lusitanorum …’. The origin of this post may be due to Augustus’s practice of giving auxiliary regiments two praefecti, although this measure was primarily designed in the interest of officers of senatorial rank. Cf. Suet. Vit. Aug. 38 ‘binos plerumque laticlavios praeposuit singulis alis’. Von Domaszewski prefers to connect it with the early system of brigading several auxiliary regiments together under one commander; Rangordnung, p. 119.
77 See below, pp. 90-101.
78 At any rate among the cohorts. A. E. 1892. 137 ‘C. Cassio Pal(atina) Blaesiano dec(urioni) coh(ortis) Ligurum principi equitum’. I. G. R. R. ii. 894 κεντυρίων ὁ καὶ πρίνκιψ σπείρας θρακῶν. There is no certain inscription of a decurio princeps alae.
79 Cf. viii. 10949, 21560; von Dom. Rangordnung, p. 63. For the following section I am deeply indebted to his discussion of the officers of the auxilia on pp. 53-61 of this work.
80 iii. 6627, 6760.
81 iii. 11213 ‘T. Calidius P. (filius) Cam(ilia) Sever(us) eq(ues), item optio, decur(io) coh(ortis) I Alpin(orum), item (centurio) leg(ionis) XV Apoll(inaris) annor(um) LVIII stip(endiorum) XXXIIII …’ is a good example of a man who rose from the ranks to the legionary centurionate.
viii. 2354 ‘… mil(itis) leg(ionis) III Aug(ustae), duplic(arii) alae Pann(oniorum), dec(urionis) al(ae) eiusdem, (centurionis) leg(ionis) III Aug(ustae)’ gives the career of a promoted legionary. D. xv, xxxii, xxxiv, xc, were granted to centurions and decurions, who must therefore have been of the same status as the men if they had not actually risen from the ranks.
82 For the line of demarcation between principales and immunes see von Dom. Rangordnung, pp. 1-4. It must be admitted that, although this distinction existed, it is not always recognizable on inscriptions.
83 These do not concern us here since their rank depended upon that of the officer to which they were attached, and the commander of an auxiliary regiment did not stand sufficiently high for his clerks and orderlies to be ranked among the principales.
84 I accept, although with some hesitation, the view of Lehner in B. J. B. cxvii against that of von Dom. Rangordnung, p. 55. It is accepted also by Max Mayer, Vexillum und vexillarius, Strassburg, 1910. For instances of the title vexillarius alae cf. iii. 4834, 11081. The standard of the Ala Longiniana, discussed by Lehner, was a vexillum bearing as its device a Celtic religious emblem, the three-horned bull. The signum of a turma of the Ala Petriana shown on a sepulchral monument was a radiated head in a medallion. See J. R. S. ii (1912), Fig. 8. Another signum on a Mainz tombstone shows four ivy leaves hanging from a cross-bar. Cf. B. J. B. cxiv-cxv, Pl. I, n. 3.
85 A. E. 1906. 119.
86 Tac. Hist. ii. 89 ‘Quattuor legionum aquilae per frontem totidemque circa e legionibus aliis vexilla, mox duodecim alarum signa et post peditum ordines eques; dein quattuor et triginta cohortes, ut nomina gentium aut species armorum forent, discretae’.
87 On one of the inscriptions which mentions this officer, iii. 3256, he is ranked among the mounted men of a cohors equitata.
88 For the position of these officers cf. viii. 21567.
89 Arrian, Anab. vii. 23.
90 iii. 11911.
91 viii. 2094 ‘… C. Iulius Dexter vet(eranus), mil(itavit) in ala eq(ues), cur(ator) turmae, armor(um) custos, signifer tur(mae) …’.
92 iii. 7651.
93 iii. 3392.
94 I. G. R. R. iii. 1094.
95 iii. 4369.
96 iii. 13441.
97 iii. 11811. There were of course several of these, and also of the preceding officers.
98 iii. 12356.
99 vi. 225. vi. 2408 also shows seven equites preceding the signifer turmae.
100 vi. 3179, 32797. Both appear also among the equites cohortales, iii. 3352, 10589.
101 xi. 3007.
102 iii. 11213, 8762.
103 ii. 2553; cf. A. E. 1910. 4. A detachment of the Cohors I Celtiberorum in Lusitania is under the charge of a centurion of the Cohors I Gallica, a beneficiarius of the procurator, an imaginifer of Legio VII Gemina, and a tesserarius of the Cohors I Celtiberorum.
104 xiii. 7705.
105 iii. 10315.
106 iii. 10316.
107 vii. 458.
108 iii. 12602.
109 iii. 1808. We should perhaps add to this group the capsarius, A. E. 1906. 110.
110 xiii. 6572.
111 iii. 10589.
112 iii. 8522. In xiii. 6503 the musicians are described collectively as aeneatores.
113 xiii. 6538.
114 vii. 690. He served in the Cohors I Tungrorum.
115 Dig. l. 6, 7.
116 xi. 3007. His cognomen is uncertain.
117 xiii. 6621. One might add M. Mucius Hegetor medicus of the Cohors XXXII Voluntariorum in Pannonia, iii. 10854.
118 Lucian mentions a doctor of an auxiliary cohort who wrote a history of the Parthian war of Marcus and Verus and must have been a man of some education. Lucian, de hist. conscrib. 24.
119 Von Dom. Rangordnung, p. 26.
120 The record of the career of C. Iulius Dexter quoted above is quite exceptional. Usually only one post is mentioned.
121 iii. 11213 gives the sequence eques-optio-decurio, and 8762 that of eques-vexillarius-decurio, but such details are rare.
122 The principales would be the vexillarius alae, the optio singularium, and a duplicarius and sesquiplicarius to each turma. Of the immunes each turma has its signifer, custos armorum, and curator. The total number of the beneficiarii, &c., we do not know, but the inscription of the Equites Singulares quoted above suggests an average of three to a turma. In a cohors quingenaria with only 6 commissioned officers and 19 principales (the imaginifer cohortis and the signifer, optio, and tesserarius of each century) the chances of promotion would be less. This is another reason for the popularity of the cavalry and the desire of cohorts to become equitata. Cf. Tac. Hist. iv. 19.
123 The Ala Indiana may have been called after the Trevir Iulius Indus mentioned in Tac. Ann. i. 42, the Ala Siliana after C. Silius the general of Tiberius, and the Ala Pannoniorum Tampiana after Tampius Flavianus, governor of Pannonia in 69. The last case, however, is doubted by von Domaszewski, Rangordnung, p. 122, n. 6.
124 The only cases known at present are the cohorts Lepidiana and Apuleia civium Romanorum, and a Cohors Flaviana only known from a cursus honorum.
125 The name of the tribe was usually in the genitive plural but might also be in the nominative singular. Thus we find the same regiment described as Cohors I Alpinorum and Cohors I Alpina. The question of duplicate numbering, which is connected with the system of recruiting and distribution, is discussed in the following section.
126 The fact that the numerous regiments bearing this title appear in the diplomata shows that the status of their members was not permanently raised. One regiment, the Cohors II Tungrorum, bears the title C(ivium) L(atinorum), Eph. Ep. ix. 1228.
127 Ritterling has shown that all the auxilia of Germania Inferior received the titles pia fidelis Domitiana in 89 for their loyalty at the time of the rebellion of Saturninus; W. D. Z. 1893. The title fida was borne by the Cohors I Vardullorum; vii. 1043.
128 It is borne by regiments of Dacians and Britons who cannot have acquired it during the reign of Augustus; D. xxxix, iii. 10255.
129 vii. 818, 819, 820 and 823.
130 As in the case of the legions this title was probably borne by regiments which had been formed by a combination of two previously existing units. The two Alae Flaviae Geminae, for example, which appear in Germania Superior at the end of the first century, would represent the salvage of the old Rhine army which went to pieces in 69.
131 The alae Britannica, Gaetulorum, Gallorum, Parthorum, and I Thracum, and the Cohorts I Aquitanorum, III Brittonum, I Hispanorum, I Sugambrorum, and III Thracum.
132 Rangordnung, p. 80.
133 In Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie, s.v. ala and cohors. See these articles also for some rarer titles which have not been mentioned here.
134 D. xxxv and lxxiii.
135 D. xi.
136 D. xxxi (99) and xlviii (134). For proof that two distinct cohorts are referred to see Cichorius, s.v.
137 Tac. Ann. iv. 47.
138 In these cases an ethnical title may have been dropped, or omitted on the only inscriptions known to us.
139 iii. 11930, 11931 (reign of Pius), 11933 (Commodus).
140 Tac. Hist. i. 59.
141 For the position of the auxilia in the normal order of battle see below, p. 103. For Domitius Tullus and Domitius Lucanus, who held in turn the post of praefectus auxiliorum omnium adversus Germanos, probably in 73 and 74, see Dessau, Inscr. Lat. Sel. 990, 991, with notes.
142 D. xxx and xxxi.
143 D. xxxii and xxxiv.
144 D. xliii.
145 The diplomata of 133, 138, 148, 149, and 154 (D. xlvii, li, lx, lxi, and lxv) contain, on an average, ten regiments each. Four regiments are always present, and five more occur in four diplomata out of the five. This makes it sufficiently clear that, on the theory given above, the auxilia of the same legion must always be referred to, particularly in view of the immobility of the frontier troops in the second century (see below, pp. 114-16), which forbids the supposition that the same regiments would appear first attached to one legion, then, after a few years’ interval, to another.
146 The earliest I know of is legio III Augusta et auxilia eius, which dates from 158. viii. 2637. Other instances are a dedication at Bonn by legio I Minervia pia fidelis Severiana Alexandriana cum auxilis (xiii. 8017), and a Pannonian inscription of the reign of Gallienus which mentions vexillationes legionum Germaniciarum et Brittanniciarum (at least this seems to be intended) cum auxilis earum. iii. 3228. The formula is certainly a rare one.
147 Studies in Roman History, Second Series, p. 112.
148 What exactly this amounted to is difficult to make out. It would be natural to suppose a system of military districts within the province. In Britain, for instance, the line between Tyne and Solway, with the auxilia upon it, might have been divided between Legio VI Victrix from York and Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Chester. Unfortunately the epigraphical evidence does not support the idea that the activity of the two legions was localized in this way. The point is obscure and would not have been worth such a detailed discussion but for the unwarrantable facility with which it is usually disposed of.
149 Tac. Ann. iv. 5 ‘At apud idonea provinciarum sociae triremes alaeque et auxilia cohortium, neque multo secus in iis virium: sed persequi incertum fuit, cum ex usu temporis huc illuc mearent, gliscerent numero et aliquando minuerentur’. The sociae triremes, i.e. the Rhine fleet, &c., counterbalance the Italian fleets at Ravenna and Misenum.
150 Velleius, ii. 113.
151 The number of legions existing at this date is not absolutely certain, but it seems most probable that there were twenty-eight. Cf. von Domaszewski in the Römisch-germanisches Korrespondenzblatt, 1910, on the date of the creation of legions XXI and XXII.
152 Tac. Hist. ii. 58.
153 Josephus, Bell. Iud. iii. 4. 66. Twenty-three cohorts (of which ten, an unusually high proportion, were miliariae) and six alae, of unspecified size. That the auxilia had been very largely drawn on is shown by the fact that Titus in 70, although he had a whole additional legion and detachments from two others, had only twenty cohorts and eight alae; Tac. Hist. v. i.
154 Tac. Hist. iii. 2. The garrison of Noricum is probably not included.
155 This is on the supposition that the auxilia would have been drawn upon in the same proportion as the legions. Some of the regiments which remained behind seem to have been very much weakened, others such as the Ala Picentiana and the Ala Batavorum probably remained fairly intact. Tac. Hist. ii. 89, iv. 15, 18, 62. Vitellius may have had some of the British auxilia with him (cf. Tac. Hist. ii. 100, iii. 41), but these are more than counterbalanced by the eight Batavian cohorts which had been sent back.