The city

The task of compiling a bibliography on the city which is to be of use to the sociologist involves many difficulties. The materials are scattered over many fields of investigation ranging all the way from the various branches of the natural and social sciences to the practical arts and crafts. Much of the material is highly technical and abstract, while the rest is popular and full of human interest. If one attempts to survey the whole field he is likely to be led into tempting bypaths which lead far afield and in the end arrive nowhere. Moreover, the bibliographer has neither chart nor compass to guide him in his search, for the sociologist himself is not yet certain of the meaning of the concept “city” and of the relationship of his science to the phenomenon.

Specialization has gone so far that no one can hope to become an expert in more than one field in a lifetime. The sanitary engineer, interested in urban sanitation, is mainly concerned with drainage systems, pumps, sewer pipes, and incinerators; but the accountant, the political scientist, and the sociologist are not primarily interested in these matters. At first glance the sociologist might be tempted to pass over such material as lying outside his province, while he would be less likely to pass over materials relating to parks, playgrounds, schools, infant mortality, city-planning, and non-voting, because these institutions and processes have traditionally held the sociologist’s interest. And yet it is within the realm of possibility that such a question as that of the type of sewer pipe that is to be employed in a city drainage system may become one with which the sociologist is as legitimately concerned as the question of city-planning or juvenile delinquency.

The problem of deciding what is pertinent and what is extraneous is, then, obviously an important one. While the sociologist may be intensely interested in a subject matter pertaining to another science or craft, he has his own distinctive point of view, methodology, and objective, and since he cannot be an expert engineer, city manager, and sociologist all at the same time, he must accept the data of these other specialists when they happen to form the subject matter of his investigation. The sociologist is no more a housing specialist or a zoning specialist or a social case worker in a metropolitan social agency than he is an urban engineer or health officer, but he may have an important contribution to make to all of these activities, and may in turn acquire from these technicians a body of materials which shed light on his own problems and yield to sociological analysis. What is to be included or excluded from a sociological bibliography of the city depends upon the sociological definition of the city.

Although the literature on the city extends as far back as the city itself, the subject is now being studied with renewed interest and with a new point of view. If we were compiling a complete bibliography we would most likely begin with the classical discussion of Socrates in the second book of Plato’s Republic and follow the increasingly complex and scattered writings up to the present day, when we can scarcely find a science that does not have something to contribute to the subject. But this is not the aim of this bibliography. The attempt is here made to note just that part of the literature which has something to offer to the sociologist in the way of source material, point of view, method, and interpretation. A great deal, no doubt, has been included which is of little value. At the same time much has been necessarily omitted which is important. Some effort was made to avoid excessive duplication, but this attempt has not been wholly successful. The list of books and articles includes many works which were inaccessible at the time the bibliography was compiled, and whose contents could therefore not be examined. They are included because either the titles were suggestive or else the reputation of the authors merited attention.

The contribution which a bibliography is able to make to the study of any subject lies probably as much in the viewpoint it incorporates and the method of presentation it uses as in the references it presents. The scheme of classification here employed may lay claim to offering a rather new approach to the study of the city. It will probably have to be modified as new material is discovered and as the sociologists themselves continue to make their own distinctive contributions. It ought to offer an index to the aspects of the city that promise most in the way of results from research. At the same time it may be of assistance in organizing and funding the rapidly increasing body of knowledge concerning the sociology of the city.

A TENTATIVE SCHEME FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LITERATURE OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE CITY^[74]

I.

The City Defined

1.

Geographically: by site, situation, topography, density

2.

Historically: by political status, title, law

3.

Statistically: by census

4.

As an economic unit

5.

Sociologically

II.

The Natural History of the City

1.

Ancient cities: Asia, Egypt, Greece, Rome

2.

The medieval city

3.

The modern city

III.

Types of Cities

1.

Historical types

2.

Location types: sea coast, inland, river, lake

3.

Site types: plain, valley, mountain, hill, harbor, island

4.

Functional types: capital, railroad, port, commercial, industrial, resort, cultural

5.

The town, the city, and the metropolis

6.

Structural types: the natural city and the planned city

IV.

The City and Its Hinterland

1.

The trade area

2.

The commuting area: the metropolitan area

3.

The administrative city

4.

The city and its satellites

5.

The city and its cultural periphery

6.

The city and world economy

V.

The Ecological Organization of the City

1.

Natural areas

2.

The neighborhood

3.

The local community

4.

Zones and zoning

5.

The city plan

VI.

The City as a Physical Mechanism

1.

Public utilities: water, gas, electricity

2.

Means of communication: telephone, mails, telegraph, street-car, busses, automobile

3.

Streets and sewers

4.

Public safety and welfare: fire, police, health departments, social agencies

5.

Schools, theaters, museums, parks, churches, settlements

6.

Recreation

7.

City government: the city manager, the boss

8.

Food supply, stores (department and chain stores)

9.

Steel construction: the skyscraper

10.

Housing and land values

VII.

The Growth of the City

1.

Expansion

2.

Allocation and distribution of population: “city-building”

3.

Population statistics: natural growth and migration

4.

Mobility and metabolism in city life

5.

Social organization and disorganization and city growth

VIII.

Eugenics of the City

1.

Birth, death, and marriage rates: the span of life

2.

Sex and age groups

3.

Fecundity

IX.

Human Nature and City Life

1.

The division of labor: professions and specialization of occupations

2.

The mentality of city life

3.

Communication: contacts, public opinion, morale, ésprit de corps

4.

City types

X.

The City and the Country

1.

Conflicts of interest

2.

Comparison of social organization and social processes

3.

Differences in personality types

XI.

The Study of the City

1.

Systematic studies of cities

2.

The technique of the community survey

3.

Periodicals on the city

I. THE CITY DEFINED

Differences in standpoint and method in the various sciences show graphically in the definitions that each formulates of the same object. This is strikingly illustrated by a comparison of the definitions held by various scientific groups of the phenomenon of the city.

1. The city has been regarded by geographers as an integral part of the landscape. From this standpoint the city is an elevation, rising from the ground like a mountain. Such observations as changes in wind velocity and atmospheric conditions produced by the city regarded as an obstruction of the landscape have been noted. Human geography has lately come to regard the city as the most significant human transformation of the natural environment, and as part of the general product arising out of man’s relation with the natural environment. Urban geography has recently been gaining ground as a phase of regional geography. The location, physical structure, size, density, and economic function of cities are the chief factors emphasized. A substantial literature has grown up which has a direct bearing on the Sociological study of the city.

Aurousseau, M. “Recent Contributions to Urban Geography,” Geog. Rev., XIV (July, 1924), 444–55.

A concise statement of the geographical approach to the city, with a bibliography of the most authoritative and recent literature. Points out the recency of the study of urban geography and the difficulties involved in the methods. (II, 3; III.)

Barrows, Harlan H. “Geography as Human Ecology,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. XIII (March, 1923), No. 1.

While not specifically concerned with the city, defines the viewpoint and method of the geographer.

Blanchard, Raoul. “Une méthode de géographie urbaine,” La Vie Urbaine, IV (1922) 301–19.

An exposition of the principles and methods of urban geography by one of the leading authorities. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

Chisholm, G. G. “Generalizations in Geography, Especially in Human Geography,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXII (1916), 507–19. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Hassert, Kurt. Die Städte geographisch betrachtet (Leipzig, 1907).

One of the early outlines of urban geography. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

——. “Über Aufgaben der Städtekunde,” Petermann’s Mitteilungen, LVI (Part II, 1910), 289–94. (III.)

Jefferson, M. “Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population.” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XLI (1909), 537–66.

Argues the need for a geographical definition of the city and suggests one based on density of population. (I, 3, 4; III; VII, 2.)

Schrader, F. “The Growth of the Industrial City,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXIII (1917), 348–52.

An extensive review of an article by Professor Schrader printed in Annales de Géographie, January, 1917. A statement of the forces responsible for the emergence of the geographical entity “the city,” especially of the industrial city. (I, 4; III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6; V, 5; VII, 1.)

Smith, J. Russell. “The Elements of Geography and the Geographic Unit,” School and Society, Vol. XVII, No. 441. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

2. The rise of the city introduced an entirely novel element into the historical process. As a result we find the historians among the first to study this phenomenon of human aggregation which culminated in the city. The historian is mainly interested in tracing the development of this new form of social life from the standpoint of structure and formal organization. The origin of the city has been traced, the ancient cities have been described, the Greek city-state, Rome, the rise of the medieval city, and its transformation into the modern city have found an important place in historical literature. The earlier studies are mainly political in nature. Only recently have historians devoted themselves to describing the new modes of life to which the city gave rise, and the interrelations between city and country. The city has been regarded chiefly as a political unit. The name “city” was given to a settlement because it had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government, or as an honorary title conferred for service rendered to a superior political entity, or, finally, as a result of incorporation or legal enactment.

Bücher, Karl. “Die Grossstädte in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903. (I, 4; II; III; IV.)

Cunningham, William. Western Civilization (Cambridge, 1898–1900).

Has many references to the changing historical conceptions of the city. (I, 4; II. 2, 3.)

The Encyclopedia Americana, 1918 edition, Vol. VI, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

The Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911 edition, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

Schäfer, D. “Die politische und militärische Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A summary of the city as a political unit, together with its function from the military standpoint. (II; III, 1, 2, 3, 4; IV, 5.)

3. The statisticians have at various times been forced to define a city because census-taking and interpreting presupposes the existence of definite statistical units. The principal statistical methods of defining the city are: (1) by extent of the area of settlement, and (2) by number of inhabitants. In the history of the United States Census the city has been variously defined as an incorporated community of 8,000 inhabitants or more, then of 4,000, and at the present time of 2,500 inhabitants.

Blankenburg, R. “What Is a City?” Independent, XXCV (January 17, 1916), 84–85.

Meuriot, P. M. G. “Du criterium adopté pour la définition de la population urbaine,” Soc. de Statist. de Paris, LV (October, 1914), 418–30.

Reuter, E. B. Population Problems (Philadelphia and London, 1924).

Shows the changing statistical definitions of the city adopted at various times by the United States Census. Contains a great deal of other material relating to urban population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1, 2.)

4. The economists have been interested in tracing the development of the city as an economic unit. The city, from this standpoint, may be regarded as typical of a certain stage in economic development. The rise of the city is intimately associated with the transition from handicraft to machine industry, the division of labor, the market, and exchange. Besides the great number of economic histories which trace the general movement toward urban economy there are many monographs of special cities whose economic history has been studied, and some instances of present-day developments in metropolitan economy.

Below, George von. “Die Entstehung des modernen Kapitalismus und die Hauptstädte,” Schmollers Jahrbuch, XLIII (1919), 811–28. (III, 4; IV, 1, 4, 6.)

Cheney, Edward Potts. Industrial and Social History of England (New York, 1910). (II, 2, 3; IV, 6.)

Day, Clive. History of Commerce (New York, 1920). (II; III, 4; IV, 6.)

Dillen, Johannes Gerard van. Het Economisch karakter der Middeleeuwsche Stad. I. De Theorie der gesloten Stad-Huishanding (Amsterdam, 1914). (II, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6.)

Gras, Norman S. B. An Introduction to Economic History (New York, 1922).

Considerable material on the rise of the city as an economic unit. (II, 2, 3; III, 4, 5; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1.)

Sombart, Werner. The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the Modern Business Man. Translated by M. Epstein (New York, 1915). (II, 3; IV, 6; IX; X; 3.)

Waentig, H. “Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thorough study of the increasing significance of the city as an economic unit. (III, 4; IV, 6.)

5. A sociological definition of the city must recognize that such a complex phenomenon cannot be adequately characterized in terms of any one single distinguishing mark or any set of formal and arbitrary characteristics. The city is, to be sure, a human group occupying a definite area, with a set of technical devices, institutions, administrative machinery, and organization which distinguish it from other groupings. But in this conglomeration of buildings, streets, and people the sociologist discovers a psychophysical mechanism. For him the city is a set of practices, of common habits, sentiments and traditions which have grown up through several generations of life and are characteristic of a typical cultural unit. Within this larger entity which is called the city he sees many other groupings of people and areas which are the result of growth and of a continuous process of sifting and allocation, each one of which areas has a character of its own and produces its special type of inhabitant. He sees a number of occupational and cultural groups whose interests and characteristics mark them off one from the other, but who, nevertheless, are conscious of their membership in some common larger group known as the city, and who participate in its life.

From another point of view the city is an institution which has arisen and maintains itself to some extent independently of the population because it satisfies certain fundamental wants, not only of the local inhabitants, but also of a larger area which has become dependent upon what the city has to give.

The city, finally, may be regarded as the product of three fundamental processes: the ecological, the economic, and the cultural, which operate in the urban area to produce groupings and behavior which distinguish that area from its rural periphery.

Izoulet, Jean. La Cité moderne et la métaphysique de la sociologie (Paris, 1894).

Maunier, René. “The Definition of the City.” Translated by L. L. Bernard, Amer. Jour. Sociol., XV, 536–48.

A critical examination of the existing definitions of the city in the light of sociological theory. (I, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Almost every textbook in the field of sociology has some sort of a working definition of the city. In addition there are available the various conceptions of the city underlying the social surveys.

The history of the city is almost synonymous with the history of civilization. The sociologist is interested in the natural history of the city as a phase of social evolution. Unlike the historian, he is not aiming to get the concrete facts of the rise and the decay of any particular city, but rather seeks to find in the study of the history of various cities the genesis of the typical city as a basis for the classification of types of cities and of social processes, irrespective of time and place.

1. Most of our ideas as to the origin of the city we owe to the findings of the archeologists. Exactly when cities began to appear in the story of mankind is still a doubtful question. We hear of cave cities in the paleolithic age. When we come down to historic times we find numerous cities whose main purpose was defense. The ancient cities of Memphis, Thebes, Babylon, and several others were already imposing aggregations of human beings and were centers of administration and of culture. Such a vast literature exists on the Greek city-state and on Rome, that is available in almost any library, that only a few references need be cited here.

Clerget, Pierre. “Urbanism: A Historic, Geographic, and Economic Study,” Smithsonian Institution Annual Report, 1912 (Washington, D.C., 1913), pp. 653–67. (II, 2, 3; III; V, 1, 2, 3; VI; VII; VIII.)

Coulanges, Fustel de. The Ancient City: A Study of the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome (Boston, 1894). Translated by Willard Small.

Davis, W. S. A Day in Old Athens: A Picture of Athenian Life (New York, 1914).

Fowler, W. W. The City-State of the Greeks and Romans (London and New York, 1895). (I, 2.)

Friedländer, L. Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire. Authorized translation by L. A. Magnus from the 7th rev. ed. of the Sittengeschichte Roms (London, 1908–13), 4 vols. (III, 4.)

Rostovtzeff, Michael. “Cities in the Ancient World,” in volume Urban Land Economics, edited by R. T. Ely, Institute for Research in Land Economics, Ann Arbor, 1922.

Zimmern, Alfred E. The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century Athens (2d rev. edition; Oxford, 1915).

2. Historians are still doubtful whether the medieval city was the product of a continuous growth starting with Rome or whether, around the year 1000, the city was born anew after some centuries of reversion to a simpler form of social life. There is little doubt, however, that the medieval city not only had a different structure but also played a decidedly different rôle than the Greek or the Roman city. The typical medieval city was fortified and had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government. It played its leading rôle, however, as the center of trade and commerce and the home of the guilds. With the sixteenth century there came an important change over the urban life of Europe. New inventions, such as that of gunpowder, made the city wall obsolete. The beginnings of industry spelled the doom of the narrow guild system. In the light of this new order of things the medieval city of a former day—which was really a town—either had to adapt itself to the new forces that had become operative and join the ranks of growing cities or else become sterile and sink into decay.

Bax, E. B. German Culture, Past and Present (London, 1915).

Traces the development of the medieval German city. (II, 3).

Benson, E. Life in a Medieval City, Illustrated by York in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1920).

Consentius, Ernst. Alt-Berlin, Anno 1740 (2d ed.; Berlin, 1911).

One of a great number of special studies in the early history of German towns and cities. (III, 6.)

Coulton, George Gordon. Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation (Cambridge, 1918).

Green, Alice S. A. (Mrs. J. R.) Town Life in the Fifteenth Century (2 vols., New York, 1894). (III, 5.)

Pirenne, Henry. Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade. (Princeton, N.J., 1925).

Traces the growth of cities and their institutions in relation to the revival of trade. (I, 4; III, 4; IV, 4; VII, 1.)

Preuss, Hugo. Die Entwicklung des Deutschen Städtewesens (Leipzig, 1906).

A standard history of the development of the German city. (I, 2; II, 3; IV, 3; VI, 7; VII, 1.)

Stow, John. The Survey of London (1598) (London and New York, 1908).

3. The modern city marks the advent of a new epoch in civilization. Its rise has been accompanied by, and, in turn, is the result of a profound revolution in economic, political, intellectual, and social life. The modern man is to so great an extent a product of the modern city that in order to grasp the full significance of the transformation the city has wrought we must get a view of its origins and development. The city, as we find it today, is by no means a finished product. Its growth is so rapid and its energy so great that it changes its complexion almost daily, and with it the character of mankind itself.

Baily, W. L. “Twentieth Century City,” Amer. City, XXXI (August, 1924), 142–43.

Beard, C. A. “Awakening of Japanese Cities,” Review of Reviews, LXIX (May, 1924), 523–27.

Bücher, Karl. Industrial Evolution. Translated by S. M. Wickett (London and New York, 1901).

The modern city from the standpoint of industrial society. (II, 1, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6; VII, 1; IX, 1.)

Die Stadt Danzig: ihre geschichtliche Entwickelung und ihre öffentlichen Einrichtungen (Danzig, 1904).

Shows the development of a modern city and its characteristic institutions. (III, 1, 2, 3; VI.)

Ebeling, Martin. “Grossstadtsozialismus.” Vol. XLIV of Grossstadtdokumente, edited by Hans Ostwald (Berlin, 1905).

A cross-section of the modern city from the standpoint of the workingman. (IV, 3, 6; V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII, 1.)

Ende, A. von. New York (Berlin, 1909).

Typical of a great number of descriptions of cities by travelers and writers of tourists’ guidebooks. The best known are those of Baedeker, of Leipzig, covering every important European city.

George, M. Dorothy. London life in the XVIIIth Century (New York, 1925).

Contains an excellent selected bibliography on the city of London. A cross-section of London life on the threshold of the modern era. (III; VII, 1, 2.)

Hare, Augustus J. C. Paris (London, 1900).

One of a series of books of various European cities, being intended as a guide for tourists.

Hessel, J. F. The Destiny of the American City. Champaign, Illinois, 1922.

The trend of American city growth and its problems.

Howe, Frederic C. The Modern City and Its Problems (New York, 1915).

A short outline of the development of the modern city, a statement of the implications of city civilization, a discussion of the city as a physical mechanism, and suggestions for an extension of the principle of municipal ownership and management, city-planning, and co-operation. (III, 5; IV, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2; IX, 3.)

Irwin, Will. The City That Was: A Requiem of Old San Francisco (New York, 1906).

Johnson, Clarence Richard (editor). Constantinople Today, or, the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Study in Oriental Social Life (New York and London, 1923). (III, 2; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Kirk, William (editor). A Modern City: Providence, Rhode Island, and Its Activities (Chicago, 1909). (III, 4; VI; VII.)

“London: A Geographical Synthesis,” Geog. Rev., XIV (1924), 310–12.

A summary of the co-ordinated geographical study of a modern city. (III; IV; V; VI, 3.)

Pollock, H. M., and Morgan, W. S. Modern Cities (New York, 1913).

A general study of American cities and their problems. (III, 6; V, 5; VI.)

Strong, Josiah. The Twentieth Century City (New York, 1898).

Zueblin, Charles. American Municipal Progress (new and revised edition; New York, 1916).

Attempts to formulate a science of “municipal sociology.” (VI; VII; VIII, 1.)

Almost every modern city has several histories of its recent development, and the current magazines contain a great deal of general information about particular cities. The list of typical works on the modern city might be extended indefinitely, but the numerous bibliographies already available make this task unnecessary. There are published bibliographies of some of the more important European and American cities. Books on London, for instance, are so numerous that there exists in the city of London a library devoted exclusively to works on that city. A similar volume of literature is available about Paris, Rome, and other centers of culture around which there has grown up an historical tradition which gives to the locality a world-wide human interest. There are a number of books on such cities as Moscow, the city of churches, which emphasize the fact that this metropolis has occupied a position of dominance in Russian life because of its spiritual leadership, which expresses itself institutionally in its magnificent cathedrals. There are other Meccas of this sort, the literature on which would occupy many pages.

The inclusion of such books as Augustus Hare’s Paris and von Ende’s New York in this list might well raise the question as to why these two rather unimportant works were included and others of a similar nature excluded. Their pertinence in this connection was thought to lie in the fact that they are typical of books on many cities which are intended as guides to tourists or represent accounts of travelers, which are not included in this bibliography, but which might prove of interest to the student dealing with the individualities and eccentricities of individual cities.

There has grown up in recent years a renewed interest in the variety and diversity of American cities. Many such books have appeared, often in series including several cities, which give more than a traveler’s account, and actually succeed in entering into the spirit of the city. Grace King’s volume on New Orleans is perhaps the best, if not the most representative, of these American volumes.

Each city, like every other object in nature, is, in a sense, unique. A scientific study of the city presupposes, however, that a study of a number of cities will reveal certain classes or types, the members of which have certain common characteristics which mark them off from other types. There are, obviously, many criteria, on the basis of any one of which cities might be classified and distinguished from each other. Certain fundamental types appear in the literature of the subject of which the sociologist may profitably take note.

1. One of the very first characteristics that we observe about a city is its age. The difference between European and American cities in this respect is so obvious as to be inescapable. The cities of Western Europe, when compared with some of those of the Orient, again show their relative youth. A detailed study of the city reveals this important conservative influence of the early experiences of a city. Streets, walls, names, and the tradition that has grown up through centuries of existence leave their indelible impress upon the city as we find it today. Experienced observers are able to distinguish cities belonging to one historical period from those of another by their appearance, just as they are able to differentiate between the cities of adjoining countries. These differences show themselves not only in a dominant type of architecture, but also in general atmosphere, the mode of life of the inhabitants, and the activities that find expression in the life of the people.

Fleure, Herbert John. “Some Types of Cities in Temperate Europe,” Geog. Rev., X, No. 6 (1920), 357–74.

Traces the historical influences on the character of cities. (II; III, 2, 3, 5, 6.)

——. Human Geography in Western Europe: A Study in Appreciation (London, 1919). (III.)

Fraser, E. “Our Foreign Cities,” Sat. Eve. Post, CXCVI (August 25, 1923), 14–15.

The background of its inhabitants gives the city its dominant atmosphere. (V, 3; VII, 2, 3.)

Gamble, Sidney D. Peking: A Social Study (New York, 1921).

A survey of an oriental city. Incidentally reveals a strange variety of the modern city. (II; III, 4, 6; IV, 3; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 3.)

Hanslik, Erwin. Biala: eine deutsche Stadt in Galizien (Wien: Teschen und Leipzig, 1909).

The persistence of a historical type in a changing environment. (III, 6.)

Homburg, F. “Names of Cities,” Jour. Geog., XV (September, 1916), 17–23.

Rhodes, Harrison. American Towns and People (New York, 1920).

Uhde-Bernays, Herman. Rothenburg of der Tauber (Leipzig, 1922).

One of a series of volumes on “cities of culture.” The persistence of the historical influences on the atmosphere of cities. (III, 6.)

2. The means of communication that are in use at any given period in history determine the location of human settlements. For this reason the dominant location of the ancient and medieval city was on the seacoast or near a navigable body of water. The founding and the development of cities still depends on their location with reference to the means of communication in use and the consequent accessibility of the region. The coming of the railroads made large inland cities possible. Settlements located favorably along the seacoast or along an important river or lake enjoy a natural advantage which has an important bearing on their growth. Location is an important competitive element which produces fundamental types.

Faris, J. T. “The Heart of the Middle West,” Travel, XLII (December, 1923), 30–34.

Geddes, Patrick. “Cities, and the Soils They Grow From.” Survey Graphic (April, 1925), pp. 40–44.

A rather philosophical conception of the city as related to the natural environment. Suggestions concerning geotechnics, afforestation, and regional development. (III, 2, 3; V, 5.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Some Considerations on the Geographical Provinces of the United States,” Ann. of the Ass. of Amer. Geographers, VII (1917), 3–15.

Develops the theory that the country as a whole can be divided into provinces according to location on seacoast, inland lake, river, etc., and that the cities of each province are characterized by factors arising out of their location. (III, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6.)

Mercier, Marcel. La Civilisation Urbaine au Mzab: Étude de Sociologie Africaine (Alger, 1922).

The study of an African city in a desert region, whose immediate site is determined by water supply and transportation routes. The directions and the limitation of the social activities of the community are dictated by the environment. (III, 1, 6; IV, 1, 6; V, 1; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Ratzel, Friedrich. “Die geographische Lage der grossen Städte,” in volume “Die Grossstadt,” edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thoroughgoing consideration of the location types of cities by one of the earliest and most competent students of the subject. Offers the theory, also held by Cooley (C. H. Cooley, The Theory of Transportation) that cities arise at the end of a route of transportation, or at a juncture of several such routes, or at the point where one route of transportation joins another; where, for instance, a land transportation route ends and a waterway begins. Ratzel also gives one of the earliest and soundest geographical definitions of the city: “A permanent condensation (or dense settlement) of human beings and human habitations covering a considerable area and situated in the midst (or at the juncture) of several routes of transportation.” (I; II; III, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6; IV, 1; V, 5; VII, 2.)

Ridgley, Douglas C. “Geographic Principles in the Study of Cities,” Jour. of Geog., XXIV (February, 1925), 66–78.

A reiteration of Cooley’s theory: “Population and wealth tend to collect wherever there is a break in transportation.” (I, 1; VII, 1, 2.)

Wright, Henry C. The American City: An Outline of Its Development and Functions (Chicago, 1916).

Chapter i outlines the location of cities and classifies them according to their purpose. The rest of the book is taken up with government, finance, administrative problems, such as health, police, education, housing, zoning, and the effect of the city on the citizens. (III, 3, 4; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2; IX.)

3. A classification in use especially among the geographers is that arising from differences in site. It is important to distinguish between the general situation of a city, i.e., its location with reference to the surrounding territory and the means of communication with other centers of population and resources, and its immediate local setting which influences its structure and growth and brings with it certain other more deep-seated consequences.

Biermann, Charles. “Situation et Site de Lausanne,” Bull. Soc. Neuchateloise de Geog., XXV (1916), 122–49. Reviewed in Geog. Rev., VI (1918), 285.

Distinguishes between general location and immediate site as factors determining the character of the city. Emphasizes the limitations imposed on the modern city by its medieval defensive system. (III, 1, 2; VI, 3.)

Brunhes, Jean. Human Geography: An Attempt at a Positive Classification, Principles and Examples. Translated by T. C. LeCompte (Chicago and New York, 1920).

The most comprehensive and basic work in human geography at the present time available. Discusses the city as a form of occupation of the soil. Describes the principles and gives many illustrations of the effect of location on the growth and the character of cities. (I, 1; II, 2, 3; III; IV; VII, 1, 2.)

King, C. F. “Striking Characteristics of Certain Cities,” Jour. School Geog., IV (1900), 201–7, 301–8, 370–91. (III, 1, 2, 4, 6.)

Semple, Ellen C. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” Jour. School Geog., I (1897), 225–31.

Smith, Joseph Russell. Human Geography: Teachers’ Manual (Philadelphia and Chicago, 1922).

4. Cities may be classified according to the functions they characteristically perform in national or world economy. The competitive process tends to operate between cities as well as within cities, so as to give each city a rôle defining its status in the world-community. The capital city has certain features which distinguish it from a commercial and industrial city. The railroad city is fundamentally different from a resort city, from the religious Mecca, the university seat, and the international port. Even within these classes we find further specialization. Thus, we have a steel city, a film city, an automobile city, a rubber city, and a tool city. The ecological process on a national and world-wide scale is not sufficiently well known at the present time to permit of any definite system of classification, but that there is a strong tendency toward functional specialization between cities as entities is no longer open to doubt.

Cornish, Vaughan. The Great Capitals: An Historical Geography (London, 1922).

A study of the variations within the type of city serving as a political center. A work which has given a great deal of impetus to the study of functional types of cities. (III, 1.)

“F.O.B. Detroit,” Outlook, III (1915), 980–86.

A sample of the industrial type of city which is built around the production of a single product—the automobile. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Homburg, F. “Capital Cities,” Jour. Geog., XIX (January, 1920), 8–15.

Kellogg, Paul U. (editor). The Pittsburgh District (New York, 1914).

Introductory volume of the Pittsburgh Survey, one of the most comprehensive studies of an industrial, urban area. Contains material bearing on many phases of city structure and city life. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.).

Kenngott, George F. The Record of a City: A Social Survey of Lowell, Massachusetts (New York, 1912).

A cross-section of a typical manufacturing city. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

McLean, Francis H., Todd, Robert E., and Sanborn, Frank B. The Report of the Lawrence Survey (Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1917). (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

“The Right of the Community to Exist,” Living Age, CIII (October 4, 1919), 46–48.

Roberts, Peter. Anthracite Coal Communities (New York, 1904).

A study of mining communities in the United States. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Steele, Rufus. “In the Sun-Spot,” Sunset, XXXIV (1915), 690–99.

A study of Los Angeles, the city of moving pictures. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Semple, Ellen. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” Jour. School Geog., I (1897), 225–31.

——. Influences of Geographic Environment, on the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropogeography (New York, 1911).

A comprehensive work dealing with the factors in the natural environment in relation to the settlement and the activity of man. (III, 2, 3.)

Tower, W. S. “Geography of American Cities,” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XXXVII (1905), 577–88.

Distinguishes between industrial, commercial, political, and social centers and suggests that cities might combine several of these functions. Gives examples of each type, pointing out their distinctive characteristics. (III, 2, 3.)

Wood, Arthur Evans. Some Unsolved Problems of a University Town (Philadelphia, 1920.)

A study of housing, public health, and dependency in Princeton, New Jersey. (VI, 10; VII, 5.)

In the current periodical literature one can find numerous articles dealing with the various functional types of cities of the present day. The National Geographic Magazine has many numbers which are devoted to individual cities from this standpoint.

5. The town, the city, and the metropolis are genetically related concepts which represent three successive stages of an ever widening zone of interrelationships and influences. The town represents a local aggregation which is intimately bound up with a rather narrow surrounding rural periphery. It is the product of limited means of communication and constitutes a more or less self-sustaining economic unit. The city is a more highly specialized unit and, as a result, is a part of a wider interrelated area, while the metropolis tends to become a cosmopolitan unit based upon a relatively high degree of development of the means of communication. The differences between these three urban types is not only expressed in terms of number of inhabitants and area of occupation, but also in social organization and in attitudes. There is a tendency to divide the United States up into provinces according to the zone of influence of the greater metropolitan units dominating the surrounding territory and dependent upon it.

Cottrell, E. A. “Limited Town-Meetings in Massachusetts,” Nat. Mun. Rev., II (July, 1918), 433–34.

While dealing primarily with an administrative problem, points out one of the essential differences between town and city. (V, 3; VI, 7; IX, 3.)

Febvre, Lucien. A Geographical Introduction to History. Translated by E. G. Mountsford and T. H. Paxton (New York, 1925).

Contains a clear statement of the problems of human geography. Part III, chap. iii, on towns is suggestive. (I, 1; II; III.)

Gide, Charles. “L’habitation hors la ville,” Revue Economique Internationale (January, 1925), 141–57.

Gilbert, Bernard. Old England: A God’s-Eye-View of a Village (Boston, 1922).

A cross-section of village life and economy.

Gras, Norman S. B. “The Development of Metropolitan Economy in Europe and America,” Amer. Hist. Rev., XXVII (1921–22), 695–708.

Differentiates clearly between manorial, village, town, city, and metropolitan economy. (I, 4; II; III, 1; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1, 2.)

Lasker, B. “Unwalled Towns,” Survey, XLIII (March 6, 1920), 675–80.

Lohman, K. B. “Small Town Problems,” Amer. City, XXIII (July, 1920), 81.

Maine, Sir H. S. Village Communities in the East and West (7th ed.; London, 1913).

The most authoritative English study of the village. (II, 1, 2; III, 1; IV, 3; VI, 7; X, 2.)

McVey, Frank L. The Making of a Town (Chicago, 1913). (IV, 1, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1.)

Shine, Mary L. “Urban Land in the Middle Ages,” in volume, Urban Land Economics, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Shows the transition from town to city life. Contains valuable collection of material on the medieval city. (I, 2, 4; II, 2, 3; III; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2, 5; IX, 1; X, 1, 2.)

Sims, Newell Leroy. The Rural Community, Ancient and Modern (New York, 1920). (II, 1, 2; III, 1, 6; IV, 1; V, 3.)

Slosson, P. “Small-Townism,” Independent, CVI (July 9, 1921), 106–7. (X, 2, 3.)

Wilson, Warren H. Quaker Hill: A Sociological Study (New York, 1907).

A picture of a community held together by religious and social bonds. Shows the transition from a primary to a secondary type of contact. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 3.)

6. The city may be the unplanned product of the interaction of successive generations with the environment, or it may be the result of intentional activity with a specific end in view. We hear of ancient cities springing up at the will of an emperor bent on glorifying his name. There are cities in America that are the premeditated product of individuals or corporations bent on creating an adjunct to a factory. There are capital cities in America owing their existence to the decisions of a legislature. The planned city differs from the “natural” city not only in its structural form but in its functional aspects and its capacity for growth. Probably no planned city can grow into a metropolis if it does not somehow find for itself an important function in world-economy and earn its place in the competitive process.

Aurousseau, M. “Urban Geography: A Study of German Towns,” Geog. Rev., XI (October, 1921), 614–16.

A review of a German work (Geisler, Walter, “Beiträge zur Stadtgeographie.” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, Nos. 8–10 [Berlin, 1920], 274–96). Shows the influence of the old town plan on the development of the modern city. (II, 2, 3; III.)

Bodine, H. E. “Study of Local History Teaches Value of City-Planning,” American City, XXV (September, 1921), 241–45.

Cushing, C. P. “Rambler on the Standardized City,” Travel, XXIX (July, 1917), 40.

Ely, Richard T. “Pullman: A Social Study,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, LXX (December, 1884), 453–65.

While more of a general survey than a special study of the influence of the city plan upon the actual growth of the city, it does show some disharmonies arising out of the attempt to control a planned urban project in the face of growth and unexpected complications. (IV, 4; VII, 3; IX, 1.)

Ormiston, E. “Public Control of the Location of Towns,” Econ. Jour., XXVIII (December, 1918), 374–85.

Shows some of the abortive attempts to establish towns in unfavorably situated environments. Suggests public control as a possible preventive measure, if based on thorough study of all factors involved in the possibilities for growth and development. (III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 6.)

Whitbeck, R. H. “Selected Cities of the United States,” Jour. Geog., XXI (September, 1922), 205–42.

Contains several maps showing city structure.

The city-planning literature contains many instances of comparisons between planned cities and natural cities as well as examples of the effects of the city plan on the actual development of the city, and the opposite phenomenon—the effect of the natural development of the city on the city plan.

IV. THE CITY AND ITS HINTERLAND

Far from being an arbitrary clustering of people and buildings, the city is the nucleus of a wider zone of activity from which it draws its resources and over which it exerts its influence. The city and its hinterland represent two phases of the same mechanism which may be analyzed from various points of view.

1. Just as Galpin, in his Social Anatomy of a Rural Community, was able to determine the limits of the community by means of the area over which its trade routes extend, so the city may be delimited by the extent of its trading area. From the simpler area around it the city gathers the raw materials, part of which are essential to sustain the life of its inhabitants, and another part of which are transformed by the technique of the city population into finished products which flow out again to the surrounding territory, sometimes over a relatively larger expanse than the region of their origin. From another point of view the city sends out its tentacles to the remotest corners of the world to gather those sources of supply which are not available in the immediate vicinity, only to retail them to its own population and the rural region about it. Again, the city might be regarded as the distributor of wealth, an important economic rôle which has become institutionalized in a complex financial system.

Chisholm, George G. “The Geographical Relation of the Market to the Seats of Industry,” Scott. Geog. Mag., April, 1910.

Galpin, C. J. “The Social Anatomy of an Agricultural Community,” Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin, Research Bulletin 34 (Madison, Wisconsin, 1915).

Deals primarily with trade routes of an agricultural area, but throws considerable light on the urban trade area. (V, 2; X, 2.)

Levainville, Jacques. “Caen: Notes sur l’évolution de la fonction urbaine,” La Vie Urbaine, V (1923), 223–78.

Through its emphasis on the economic functions of the city this study makes clear the significance of the trade areas.

Newspapers, business houses, and mail-order houses in particular have published numerous discussions and graphic statements of their circulation or their trade relations with the surrounding territory. Such documents are to be found in numerous specialized trade and commercial journals. In addition there are government reports and publications of chambers of commerce bearing on this question.

2. One of the outstanding prerequisites of any city is a local transportation system which makes possible ready access of the population living in diverse sections to their places of work, the centers of trade, of culture, and of other social activities. The city consists of not merely a continuous densely populated and built up area, but of suburbs and outlying regions which by means of rapid transit are within easy reach of urban activities. This area has been termed the commuting area. Although the inhabitants of this larger area of settlement may not be under the same taxing, policing, and governing authorities as the inhabitants of the city proper, they think of themselves as part of the same metropolis and actively participate in its life.

Edel, Edmund. Neu Berlin, volume L in “Grossstadt Dokumente Series,” edited by Hans Ostwald, Berlin, 1905.

Discusses the changes brought about by recent growth in the city of Berlin, with emphasis on the recently built-up suburbs. (VII, 1, 2, 4.)

Lueken, E. “Vorstadtprobleme,” Schmollers Jahrb., XXXIX (1915), 1911–20.

Discussion of the governmental and technical problems brought about by the rise of the suburbs. (IV, 3; V, 1; VI.)

Wright, Henry C. “Rapid Transit in Relation to the Housing Problem,” in Proceedings of the Second National Conference on City Planning (Rochester, 1910), pp. 125–35.

Considers the possibility of distributing the urban population in the suburbs by building up a rapid transit system. (VI, 2, 3, 10.)

3. That part of the inhabitants of a given metropolitan area who actually are under the same administrative machinery may constitute only a relatively small part of the inhabitants of the metropolitan district as a whole. The size of the administrative unit tends to lag behind the size of the metropolis proper. Suburbs are incorporated gradually, and changes in charters and legal organization often do not keep pace with the rapid expansion of the district. The city of London proper is only a relatively small part of metropolitan London. As a result of such anomalous situations many difficulties occur in interpreting statistical data compiled by governmental agencies.

Gross, Charles. Bibliography of British Municipal History (New York, 1897). (I, 2; VI, 7.)

Howe, Frederic C. European Cities at Work (New York, 1913).

A general survey of the structure and the government of the European city. (II, 3; VI; VII, 1.)

——. The British City: The Beginnings of Democracy (New York, 1907). (II, 2, 3; VI.)

Kales, Albert M. Unpopular Government in the United States (Chicago, 1914).

A discussion of the administrative problems of the city, emphasizing the anomalous situations brought about by legal restrictions in the face of urban development. (VI, 7; X, 1, 2.)

Maxey, C. C. “Political Integration of Metropolitan Communities,” National Munic. Rev., XI (August, 1922), 229–53. (IV, 2; VI, 7.)

Wilcox, Delos F. The American City: A Problem in Democracy (New York, 1906).

A work dealing mainly with the administration of the city. Chapter i, “Democracy and City Life in America,” chapter ii on “The Street,” and v on “The Control of Leisure” are suggestive. (VI; VII, 5.)

4. One of the latest phases of city growth is the development of satellite cities. These are generally industrial units growing up outside the boundaries of the administrative city, which, however, are dependent upon the city proper for their existence. Often they become incorporated into the city proper after the city has inundated them, and thus lose their identity. The location of such satellites may exert a determining influence upon the direction of the city’s growth. These satellites become culturally a part of the city long before they are actually incorporated into it.

Taylor, Graham Romeyn. Satellite Cities: A Study of Industrial Suburbs (New York and London, 1915).

The most comprehensive study of its kind. (III, 4; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Wright, R. “Satellite Cities,” Bellman, XXV (November 16, 1918), 551–52.

5. The city has come to be recognized as the center of culture. Innovations in social life and in ideas gravitate from the city to the country. Through its newspapers, theaters, schools, and museums, through its traveling salesmen and mail-order houses, through its large representation in the legislatures, and through many other points of contact with the inhabitants of the rural periphery about it, the city diffuses its culture over a large area. The city is in this respect an important civilizing agent.

Desmond, S. “America’s City Civilization: The Natural Divisions of the United States,” Century, CVIII (August, 1924), 548–55.

Holds that America is creating a new type of city civilization of a decentralized type. Several outstanding American cities are described as cultural entities and as exerting a dominating influence over a large rural area, thus suggesting the emergence of cultural provinces. (III, 1, 2, 3; IX, 2.)

Petermann, Theodor. “Die geistige Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt (Dresden, 1903).

One of the best concise statements on the cultural significance of the city from the standpoint of the rural periphery. (IV, 6; IX, 1, 2; X, 1, 2, 3.)

Wells, Joseph. Oxford and Oxford Life (London, 1899).

An example of a cultural type of city from the functional standpoint, and its influence. (II, 2, 3; III, 4.)

There are a number of studies of cities as cultural centers. The city of Moscow has often been described as the city of churches, for instance, and as such has exercised an influence over the life of Russia all out of proportion to its function in other respects. Similar studies are available of Rome, Venice, Dresden, and a number of others.

6. With the advent of modern methods of communication the whole world has been transformed into a single mechanism of which a country or a city is merely an integral part. The specialization of function, which has been a concomitant of city growth, has created a state of interdependence of world-wide proportions. Fluctuations in the price of wheat on the Chicago Grain Exchange reverberate to the remotest part of the globe, and a new invention anywhere will soon have to be reckoned with at points far from its origin. The city has become a highly sensitive unit in this complex mechanism, and in turn acts as a transmitter of such stimulation as it receives to a local area. This is as true of economic and political as it is of social and intellectual life.

Baer, M. Der internationale Mädchenhandel, Vol. XXXVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Shows that the large city is the center of the world white-slave traffic. (III, 4; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bernhard, Georg. Berliner Banken, Vol. VIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

While primarily a study of Berlin banks, shows the large city as the center of the economic life of the world. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Distribution of British Cities and the Empire,” Geog. Rev., IV (November, 1917), 387–94.

“English cities are unique in that they have taken the whole world for their countryside.... The conception of the British empire as the direct result of English trade in English manufactures, which in turn are largely a response to English treasures in coal and iron, is strongly reenforced by the distribution of her great cities.” (III, 4; VI, 8.)

Olden, Balder. Der Hamburger Hafen, Vol. XLVI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The influence of world-commerce on the city. (III, 3, 4; IV, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Penck, Albrecht. Der Hafen von New York, Vol. IV of the collection, “Meereskunde” (Berlin, 1910).

An excellent view of the traffic in the harbor of New York. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Zimmern, Helen. Hansa Towns (New York, 1895).

An historical example of a typical function of cities in world-economy. (I, 2; II, 2.)

V. THE ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CITY

Just as the city as a whole is influenced in its position, function, and growth by competitive factors which are not the result of the design of anyone, so the city has an internal organization which may be termed an ecological organization, by which we mean the spatial distribution of population and institutions and the temporal sequence of structure and function following from the operation of selective, distributive, and competitive forces tending to produce typical results wherever they are at work. Every city tends to take on a structural and functional pattern determined by the ecological factors that are operative. The internal ecological organization of a city permits of more intensive study and accurate analysis than the ecology of the city from the external standpoint. For the latter phase of the subject we will have to rely on further investigations of the economists, the geographers, and the statisticians. The facts of the local groupings of the population that arise as a result of ecological factors are, however, readily accessible to the sociologist.

I. Plant ecologists have been accustomed to use the expression “natural area” to refer to well-defined spatial units having their own peculiar characteristics. In human ecology the term “natural area” is just as applicable to groupings according to selective and cultural characteristics. Land values are an important index to the boundaries of these local areas. Streets, rivers, railroad properties, street-car lines, and other distinctive marks or barriers tend to serve as dividing lines between the natural areas within the city.

Addams, Jane. A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil (New York, 1912).

A discussion of vice and the vice district in Chicago. (V, 4; VI, 6.)

Anderson, Nels. The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man (Chicago, 1923).

The study of a typical deteriorated area in the city where the homeless men congregate. (VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bab, Julius. Die Berliner Bohème, Vol. II in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a natural area which has developed an exotic atmosphere as a result of the social isolation of its members and their peculiar personalities. At the same time furnishes an excellent history of a local community and is a unique contribution to the mentality of city life. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Booth, Charles. Life and Labor of the People of London (London, 1892).

The most comprehensive study of London in existence. Especially interesting in this connection for its description of the natural areas of that city. Volume V, on East London, offers a wealth of insight into city life. These volumes cover almost every phase of city life and should be cross-referenced with most of the categories suggested in this outline.

Brown, Junius Henri. The Great Metropolis: A mirror of New York (Hartford, 1869).

Gives a view of New York at about the middle of the nineteenth century. Is of interest for a comparative study of the city then, and now from the point of view of its natural divisions. (VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Denison, John Hopkins. Beside the Bowery (New York, 1914). (VII, 2.)

Dietrich, Richard. Lebeweltnächte der Friedrichstadt, Vol. XXX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A view of Berlin’s bright-light area. (VI, 6; VII, 2, 5; IX.)

Goldmark, Pauline. West-Side Studies (New York, 1914).

Historical and social investigations of local urban areas, especially from the point of view of social welfare and pathology. (V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII; IX, 1.)

Harper, Charles George. Queer Things about London; Strange Nooks and Corners of the Greatest City in the World (Philadelphia, 1924). (II, 3; V, 2, 3; VI, 3, 5, 8, 10.)

Kirwan, Daniel Joseph. Palace and Hovel, or Phases of London Life; Being Personal Observations of an American in London (Hartford, 1870). (II, 3; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1, 4.)