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Title: The Economic Aspect of Geology
Author: C. K. Leith
Release date: January 19, 2009 [eBook #27842]
Most recently updated: March 17, 2013
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF GEOLOGY ***
THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GEOLOGY
C. K. LEITH
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Copyright, 1921
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
August, 1923
PRINTED IN THE U. S. A.
CONTENTS
| CHAPTER | PAGE | ||
| I. | INTRODUCTION | 1 | |
| Survey of Field | 1 | ||
| Economic applications of the several branches of geology and of other sciences | 3 | ||
| Stratigraphy and paleontology | 4 | ||
| Structural geology | 5 | ||
| Physiography | 6 | ||
| Rock alterations or metamorphism | 10 | ||
| Application of other sciences | 10 | ||
| Treatment of the subject in this volume | 11 | ||
| II. | THE COMMON ELEMENTS, MINERALS, AND ROCKS OF THE EARTH AND THEIR ORIGINS | 13 | |
| Relative abundance of the principal elements of the lithosphere | 13 | ||
| Relative abundance of the principal minerals of the lithosphere | 14 | ||
| Relative abundance of the principal rocks of the lithosphere | 16 | ||
| Water (hydrosphere) | 18 | ||
| Soils and clays | 18 | ||
| Comparison of lists of most abundant rocks and minerals with commercial rocks and minerals | 18 | ||
| The origin of common rocks and minerals | 19 | ||
| Igneous processes | 19 | ||
| Igneous after-effects | 19 | ||
| Weathering of igneous rocks and veins | 20 | ||
| Sedimentary processes | 22 | ||
| Weathering of sedimentary rocks | 23 | ||
| Consolidation, cementation, and other sub-surface alterations of rocks | 24 | ||
| Cementation | 24 | ||
| Dynamic and contact metamorphism | 25 | ||
| The metamorphic cycle as an aid in studying mineral deposits | 27 | ||
| III. | SOME SALIENT FEATURES OF THE GEOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS | 29 | |
| Various methods of classification | 29 | ||
| Names | 31 | ||
| Mineral deposits as magmatic segregations in igneous rocks | 34 | ||
| Mineral deposits within and adjacent to igneous rocks, which were formed immediately after the cooling and crystallization of the magmas through the agency of hot magmatic solutions | 36 | ||
| Evidence of igneous source | 37 | ||
| Possible influence of meteoric waters in deposition of ores of this class | 41 | ||
| Zonal arrangement of minerals related to igneous rocks | 42 | ||
| The relation of contact metamorphism to ore bodies of the foregoing class | 45 | ||
| Secondary concentration in place of the foregoing classes of mineral deposits through the agency of surface solutions | 46 | ||
| Residual mineral deposits formed by the weathering of igneous rocks in place | 50 | ||
| Mineral deposits formed directly as placers and sediments | 51 | ||
| Mechanically deposited minerals | 51 | ||
| Chemically and organically deposited minerals | 52 | ||
| Sedimentary mineral deposits which have required further concentration to make them commercially available | 54 | ||
| Anamorphism of mineral deposits | 57 | ||
| Conclusion | 58 | ||
| IV. | MINERAL RESOURCES—SOME GENERAL QUANTITATIVE CONSIDERATIONS | 60 | |
| World annual production of minerals in short tons | 60 | ||
| World annual production of minerals in terms of value | 62 | ||
| Significance of geographic distribution of mineral production | 63 | ||
| The increasing rate of production | 63 | ||
| Capital value of world mineral reserves | 64 | ||
| Political and commercial control of mineral resources | 65 | ||
| Reserves of mineral resources | 65 | ||
| V. | WATER AS A MINERAL RESOURCE | 67 | |
| General geologic relations | 67 | ||
| Distribution of underground water | 68 | ||
| Movement of underground water | 71 | ||
| Wells and springs | 72 | ||
| Composition of underground waters | 73 | ||
| Relation of geology to underground water supply | 75 | ||
| Surface water supplies | 76 | ||
| Underground and surface waters in relation to excavation and construction | 78 | ||
| VI. | THE COMMON ROCKS AND SOILS AS MINERAL RESOURCES | 80 | |
| Economic features of the common rocks | 80 | ||
| Granite | 82 | ||
| Basalt and related types | 82 | ||
| Limestone, marl, chalk | 82 | ||
| Marble | 83 | ||
| Sand, sandstone, quartzite (and quartz) | 84 | ||
| "Sand and gravel" | 84 | ||
| Clay, shale, slate | 85 | ||
| The feldspars | 86 | ||
| Hydraulic cement (including Portland, natural, and Puzzolan cements) | 86 | ||
| Geologic features of the common rocks | 88 | ||
| Building stone | 88 | ||
| Crushed stone | 90 | ||
| Stone for metallurgical purpposes | 91 | ||
| Clay | 91 | ||
| Limitations of geologic field in commercial investigation of common rocks | 92 | ||
| Soils as a mineral resource | 94 | ||
| Origin of soils | 94 | ||
| Composition of soils and plant growth | 96 | ||
| Use of geology in soil study | 97 | ||
| VII. | THE FERTILIZER GROUP OF MINERALS | 99 | |
| General comments | 99 | ||
| Nitrates | 101 | ||
| Economic features | 101 | ||
| Geologic features | 102 | ||
| Phosphates | 104 | ||
| Economic features | 104 | ||
| Geologic features | 105 | ||
| Pyrite | 107 | ||
| Economic features | 107 | ||
| Geologic features | 108 | ||
| Sulphur | 109 | ||
| Economic features | 109 | ||
| Geologic features | 110 | ||
| Potash | 111 | ||
| Economic features | 111 | ||
| Geologic features | 112 | ||
| VIII. | THE ENERGY RESOURCES—COAL, OIL, GAS (AND ASPHALT) | 115 | |
| Coal | 115 | ||
| Economic features | 115 | ||
| World production and trade | 115 | ||
| Production in the United States | 117 | ||
| Coke | 118 | ||
| Classification of coals | 119 | ||
| Geologic features | 123 | ||
| Petroleum | 127 | ||
| Economic ffeatures | 127 | ||
| Production and reserves | 128 | ||
| Methods of estimating reserves | 134 | ||
| Classes of oils | 136 | ||
| Conservation of oil | 137 | ||
| Geologic features | 140 | ||
| Organic theory of origin | 140 | ||
| Effect of differential pressures and folding on oil genesis and migration | 142 | ||
| Inorganic theory of origin | 143 | ||
| Oil exploration | 144 | ||
| Oil shales | 150 | ||
| Natural gas | 151 | ||
| Economic features | 151 | ||
| Geologic features | 151 | ||
| Asphalt and bitumen | 151 | ||
| Economic features | 151 | ||
| Geologic features | 153 | ||
| IX. | MINERALS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL (THE FERRO-ALLOY GROUP) | 154 | |
| General features | 154 | ||
| Iron ores | 158 | ||
| Economic features | 158 | ||
| Technical and commercial factors determining use of iron ore materials | 158 | ||
| Geographic distribution of iron ore production | 160 | ||
| World reserves and future production of iron ore | 162 | ||
| Geologic features | 166 | ||
| Sedimentary iron ores | 166 | ||
| Iron ores associated with igneous rocks | 171 | ||
| Iron ores due to weathering of igneous rocks | 171 | ||
| Iron ores due to weathering of sulphide ores | 173 | ||
| Manganese ores | 173 | ||
| Economic features | 173 | ||
| Geologic features | 176 | ||
| Chrome (or chromite) ores | 178 | ||
| Economic features | 178 | ||
| Geologic features | 179 | ||
| Nickel ores | 180 | ||
| Economic features | 180 | ||
| Geologic features | 180 | ||
| Tungsten (wolfram) ores | 182 | ||
| Economic features | 182 | ||
| Geologic features | 184 | ||
| Molybdenum ores | 185 | ||
| Economic features | 185 | ||
| Geologic features | 186 | ||
| Vanadium ores | 187 | ||
| Economic features | 187 | ||
| Geologic features | 188 | ||
| Zirconium ores | 189 | ||
| Economic features | 189 | ||
| Geologic features | 189 | ||
| Titanium ores | 190 | ||
| Economic features | 190 | ||
| Geologic features | 190 | ||
| Magnesite | 191 | ||
| Economic features | 191 | ||
| Geologic features | 192 | ||
| Fluorspar | 193 | ||
| Economic features | 193 | ||
| Geologic features | 194 | ||
| Silica | 195 | ||
| Economic features | 195 | ||
| Geologic features | 196 | ||
| X. | COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINERALS | 197 | |
| Copper ores | 197 | ||
| Economic features | 197 | ||
| Geologic features | 199 | ||
| Copper deposits associated with igneous flows | 200 | ||
| Copper veins in igneous rocks | 201 | ||
| "Porphyry coppers" | 203 | ||
| Copper in limestone near igneous contacts | 204 | ||
| Copper deposits in schists | 204 | ||
| Sedimentary copper deposits | 205 | ||
| General comments | 206 | ||
| Lead ores | 209 | ||
| Economic features | 209 | ||
| Geologic features | 211 | ||
| Zinc ores | 213 | ||
| Economic features | 213 | ||
| Geologic features | 216 | ||
| XI. | GOLD, SILVER, AND PLATINUM MINERALS | 221 | |
| Gold ores | 221 | ||
| Economic features | 221 | ||
| Geologic features | 226 | ||
| Silver ores | 231 | ||
| Economic features | 231 | ||
| Geologic features | 234 | ||
| Platinum ores | 237 | ||
| Economic features | 237 | ||
| Geologic features | 239 | ||
| XII. | MISCELLANEOUS METALLIC MINERALS | 241 | |
| Aluminum ores | 241 | ||
| Economic features | 241 | ||
| Geologic features | 243 | ||
| Antimony ores | 246 | ||
| Economic features | 246 | ||
| Geologic features | 248 | ||
| Arsenic ores | 249 | ||
| Economic features | 249 | ||
| Geologic features | 251 | ||
| Bismuth ores | 252 | ||
| Economic features | 252 | ||
| Geologic features | 252 | ||
| Cadmium ores | 253 | ||
| Economic features | 253 | ||
| Geologic features | 254 | ||
| Cobalt ores | 254 | ||
| Economic features | 254 | ||
| Geologic features | 255 | ||
| Mercury (quicksilver) ores | 255 | ||
| Economic features | 255 | ||
| Geologic features | 258 | ||
| Tin ores | 260 | ||
| Economic features | 260 | ||
| Geologic features | 261 | ||
| Uranium and radium ores | 263 | ||
| Economic features | 263 | ||
| Geologic features | 264 | ||
| XIII. | MISCELLANEOUS NON-METALLIC MINERALS | 267 | |
| Natural abrasives | 267 | ||
| Economic features | 267 | ||
| Geologic features | 269 | ||
| Asbestos | 270 | ||
| Economic features | 270 | ||
| Geologic features | 271 | ||
| Barite (barytes) | 272 | ||
| Economic features | 272 | ||
| Geologic features | 273 | ||
| Borax | 274 | ||
| Economic features | 274 | ||
| Geologic features | 275 | ||
| Bromine | 277 | ||
| Economic features | 277 | ||
| Geologic features | 278 | ||
| Fuller's earth | 278 | ||
| Economic features | 278 | ||
| Geologic features | 279 | ||
| Graphite (plumbago) | 279 | ||
| Economic features | 279 | ||
| Geologic features | 282 | ||
| Gypsum | 283 | ||
| Economic features | 283 | ||
| Geologic features | 284 | ||
| Mica | 285 | ||
| Economic features | 285 | ||
| Geologic features | 287 | ||
| Monazite (thorium and cerium ores) | 288 | ||
| Economic features | 288 | ||
| Geologic features | 289 | ||
| Precious stones | 289 | ||
| Economic features | 289 | ||
| Geologic features | 291 | ||
| Salt | 294 | ||
| Economic features | 294 | ||
| Geologic features | 295 | ||
| Talc and soapstone | 299 | ||
| Economic features | 299 | ||
| Geologic features | 299 | ||
| XIV. | EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT | 301 | |
| The general relations of the geologist to exploration and development | 301 | ||
| Partly explored versus virgin territories | 303 | ||
| The use of all available information | 304 | ||
| Coöperation in exploration | 305 | ||
| Economic factors in exploration | 306 | ||
| Geologic factors in exploration | 307 | ||
| Mineral provinces and epochs | 308 | ||
| Classification of mineral lands | 309 | ||
| Outcrops of mineral deposits | 311 | ||
| Some illustrative cases | 312 | ||
| Topography and climate as aids in searching for mineral outcrops | 314 | ||
| Size and depth of ore bodies as determined from outcrops | 315 | ||
| The use of placers in tracing mineral outcrops | 316 | ||
| The use of magneetic surveys in tracing mineral ledges | 317 | ||
| The use of electrical conductivity and other qualities of rocks in exploration | 319 | ||
| The use of structure and metamorphism in exploration | 310 | ||
| Drilling in exploration | 320 | ||
| Quantitative aspects of geologic exploration | 321 | ||
| Origin of mineral deposits as a factor in exploration | 322 | ||
| Lake superior iron ore exploration as an illustration | 323 | ||
| Development and exploitation of mineral deposits | 326 | ||
| XV. | VALUATION AND TAXATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES | 328 | |
| Popular conception of mineral valuation | 328 | ||
| Valuation and taxation of mines | 329 | ||
| Intrinsic and extrinsic factors in valuation | 329 | ||
| Values of mineral deposits not often established by market transfers | 331 | ||
| The ad valorem method of valuation | 331 | ||
| Other methods of mineral valuation and taxation | 335 | ||
| General comments on taxation of mineral resources | 338 | ||
| XVI. | LAWS RELATING TO MINERAL RESOURCES | 342 | |
| I. | Laws relating to ownership and control of mineral resources | 342 | |
| On alienated lands | 343 | ||
| On the public domain | 344 | ||
| Nationalization of mineral resources | 345 | ||
| Effect of ownership laws on exploration | 347 | ||
| Use of geology in relation to ownership laws | 349 | ||
| II. | Laws relating to extraction of mineral resources | 355 | |
| III. | Laws relating to distribution and transportation of mineral resources | 355 | |
| IV. | Other relations of geology to law | 356 | |
| XVII. | CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES | 359 | |
| The problem | 359 | ||
| Differences between private and public efforts in conservation | 363 | ||
| The interest rate as a guide in conservation | 364 | ||
| Anti-conservational effects of war | 365 | ||
| Conservation of coal | 366 | ||
| Measures introduced or proposed to conserve coal | 367 | ||
| (A) Mining and preparation of coal | 368 | ||
| Progress in above methods | 370 | ||
| (B) Improvement of labor and living conditions at the mines | 372 | ||
| (C) Introduction or modification of laws to regulate or to remove certain restrictions on the coal industry | 373 | ||
| (D) Distribution and transportation of coal | 376 | ||
| (E) Utilization of coal | 377 | ||
| (F) Substitutes for coal as a source of power | 378 | ||
| Division of responsibility between government and private interests in the conservation of coal | 379 | ||
| Conservation of minerals other than coal | 382 | ||
| XVIII. | INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF MINERAL RESOURCES | 383 | |
| World movement of minerals | 383 | ||
| Movemenet of minerals under pre-war conditions of international trade | 385 | ||
| Changes during the war | 385 | ||
| Post-war condition of the mineral trade | 387 | ||
| Tendencies toward international coöperation and possibility of international control of minerals | 389 | ||
| Methods of international coöperation | 391 | ||
| Conservation in its international relations | 393 | ||
| Exploration in its international relations | 395 | ||
| Valuation in its international relations | 396 | ||
| Relative position of the united states in regard to supplies of minerals | 396 | ||
| The coal and iron situation of western europe under the terms of the peace | 400 | ||
| Conclusion | 403 | ||
| Literature | 403 | ||
| XIX. | GEOLOGY AND WAR | 405 | |
| Geology behind the front | 405 | ||
| Geology at the front | 408 | ||
| Effect of the war on the science of economic geology | 412 | ||
| XX. | GEOLOGY AND ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION | 413 | |
| Foundations | 413 | ||
| Surface waters | 414 | ||
| Tunnels | 414 | ||
| Slides | 415 | ||
| Subsidence | 417 | ||
| Railway building | 417 | ||
| Road building | 418 | ||
| Geology in engineering courses | 419 | ||
| XXI. | THE TRAINING, OPPORTUNITIES AND ETHICS OF THE ECONOMIC GEOLOGIST | 420 | |
| Pure versus applied science | 420 | ||
| Course of study suggested | 422 | ||
| Field work | 425 | ||
| Specialization in studies | 426 | ||
| A degree of Economic Geology | 427 | ||
| The opportunities of the economic geologist | 428 | ||
| Ethics of the economic geologist | 430 | ||