The English Language

James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in -s.

CHAPTER XX.

ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS.

§ 355. The inflection of the present tense, not only in Anglo-Saxon, but in several other languages as well, has been given in the preceding chapter. As compared with the present plural forms, we love, ye love, they love, both the Anglo-Saxon we lufiað, ge lufiað, hi lufiað, and the Old English we loven, ye loven, they loven, have a peculiar termination for the plural number which the present language wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural personal characteristic, whilst the Modern English has nothing to correspond with it.

The word personal is printed in italics. It does not follow, that, because there is no plural personal characteristic, there is also no plural characteristic.

There is no reason against the inflection of the word love running thus—I love, thou lovest, he loves; we lave, ye lave, they lave; in other words, there is no reason against the vowel of the root being changed with the number. In such a case there would be no personal inflection, though there would be a plural, or a numeral, inflection.

Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs such a plural inflection not only actually takes place, but takes place most regularly. It takes place, however, in the past tense only. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst the rest, in—

Mœso-Gothic.

Anglo-Saxon.

In all the Anglo-Saxon words, it may be remarked that the change is from a to u, and that both the vowels are short, or dependent. Also, that the vowel of the present tense is i short; as swim, sing, &c. The Anglo-Saxon form of run is yrnan.

In the following words the change is from the Anglo-Saxon á to the Anglo-Saxon ī. In English, the regularity of the change is obscured by a change of pronunciation.

From these examples the reader has himself drawn his inference; viz. that words like

generally called double forms of the past tense, were originally different numbers of the same tense, the forms in u, as swum, and the forms in i, bit, being plural.

CHAPTER XXI.

ON MOODS.

§ 356. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive has already been considered.

§ 357. Between the second plural imperative, and the second plural indicative, speak ye and ye speak, there is no difference of form. Between the second singular imperative speak, and the second singular indicative, speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form speak is distinguished from the indicative form speakest by the negation of a character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot be said that there is in English any imperative mood.

§ 358. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is characterised by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to am, in the sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive.

The only true subjunctive inflection in the English language is that of were and wert, as opposed to the indicative forms was and wast.

CHAPTER XXII.

ON TENSES IN GENERAL.

§ 359. The nature of tenses in general is best exhibited by reference to the Greek; since in that language they are more numerous, and more strongly marked than elsewhere.

I strike, I struck.—Of these words, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place.

These two notions of present and of past time, being expressed by a change of form, are true tenses. They are however, the only true tenses in our language. In I was beating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and I shall beat, a difference of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words, and not by a change of form, no true tenses are constituted.

In Greek the case is different. Τύπτω (typtô)=I beat; ἔτυπτον (etypton)=I was beating; τύψω (typsô)=I shall beat; ἔτυψα (etypsa)=I beat; τέτυφα (tetyfa)=I have beaten; ἐτετύφειν (etetyfein)=I had beaten. In these words we have, of the same mood, the same voice, and the same conjugation, six different tenses;^[47] whereas, in English, there are but two. The forms τέτυφα and ἔτυψα are so strongly marked, that we recognise them wheresoever they occur. The first is formed by a reduplication of the initial τ, and, consequently, may be called the reduplicate form. As a tense it is called the perfect. In the form ἔτυψα an ε is prefixed, and an σ is added. In the allied language of Italy the ε disappears, whilst the σ (s) remains. Ἔτυψα is said to be an aorist tense. Scripsi : scribo :: ἔτυψα : τύπτω.

§ 360. Now in the Latin language a confusion takes place between these two tenses. Both forms exist. They are used, however, indiscriminately. The aorist form has, besides its own, the sense of the perfect. The perfect has, besides its own, the sense of the aorist. In the following pair of quotations, vixi, the aorist form, is translated I have lived, while tetigit, the perfect form, is translated he touched.

When a difference of form has ceased to express a difference of meaning, it has become superfluous. This is the case with the two forms in question. One of them may be dispensed with; and the consequence is, that, although in the Latin language both the perfect and the aorist forms are found, they are, with few exceptions, never found in the same word. Wherever there is the perfect, the aorist is wanting, and vice versâ. The two ideas I have struck and I struck are merged into the notion of past time in general, and are expressed by one of two forms, sometimes by that of the Greek perfect, and sometimes by that of the Greek aorist. On account of this the grammarians have cut down the number of Latin tenses to five; forms like cucurri and vixi being dealt with as one and the same tense. The true view is, that in curro the aorist form is replaced by the perfect, and in vixi the perfect form is replaced by the aorist.

§ 361. In the present English there is no undoubted perfect or reduplicate form. The form moved corresponds in meaning not with τέτυφα and momordi, but with ἔτυψα and vixi. Its sense is that of ἔτυψα, and not that of τέτυφα. The notion given by τέτυφα we express by the circumlocution I have beaten. We have no such form as bebeat or memove. In the Mœso-Gothic, however, there was a true reduplicate form; in other words, a perfect tense as well as an aorist. It is by the possession of this form that the verbs of the first six conjugations are characterized.

In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, besides their own, an aorist sense, and vice versâ.

In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are found in both forms.

In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt with as a single tense; láilô being called the præterite of láia, and svôr the præterite of svara. The true view, however, is that in Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are two past tenses, each having a certain latitude of meaning, and each, in certain words, replacing the other.

The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, is current in none of the Gothic languages except the Mœso-Gothic. A trace of it is found in the Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century in the word heht, which is considered to be hê-ht, the Mœso-Gothic háiháit, vocavi. This statement is taken from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 378. Did from do is also considered to be a reduplicate form.

§ 362. In the English language the tense corresponding with the Greek aorist and the Latin forms like vixi, is formed after two modes; 1, as in fell, sang, and took, from fall, sing, and take, by changing the vowel of the present: 2, as in moved and wept, from move and weep, by the addition of d or t; the d or t not being found in the original word, but being a fresh element added to it. In forms, on the contrary, like sang and fell, no addition being made, no new element appears. The vowel, indeed, is changed, but nothing is added. Verbs, then, of the first sort, may be said to form their præterites out of themselves; whilst verbs of the second sort require something from without. To speak in a metaphor, words like sang and fell are comparatively independent. Be this as it may, the German grammarians call the tenses formed by a change of vowel the strong tenses, the strong verbs, the strong conjugation, or the strong order; and those formed by the addition of d or t, the weak tenses, the weak verbs, the weak conjugation, or the weak order. Bound, spoke, gave, lay, &c., are strong; moved, favoured, instructed, &c., are weak. For the proof that the division of verbs into weak and strong is a natural division, see the Chapter on Conjugation.

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE STRONG TENSES.

§ 363. The strong præterites are formed from the present by changing the vowel, as sing, sang, speak, spoke.

The first point in the history of these tenses that the reader is required to be aware of, is stated in the Chapter upon the Numbers, viz., that, in Anglo-Saxon, several præterites change, in their plural, the vowel of their singular; as

As a general rule, the second singular has the same vowel with the plural persons, as burne, thou burntest, plural burnon, we burnt.

The bearing of this fact upon the præterites has been indicated in p. 300. In a great number of words we have a double form, as ran and run, sang and sung, drank and drunk, &c. One of these forms is derived from the singular, and the other from the plural. I cannot say at what period the difference of form ceased to denote a difference of sense.

In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is not necessarily the singular one. For instance, Ic fand, I found, we fundon, we found, are the Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the present word found comes, not from the singular fand, but from the plural fund; although in the Lowland Scotch dialect and in the old writers, the singular form occurs.

Even in the present English it will be found convenient to call the forms like sang and drank the singular, and those like sung and bound the plural forms.

Be it observed, that, though this fact accounts for most of our double forms, it will not account for all. In the Anglo-Saxon, Ic sprǽc, I spake, we sprǽcon, we spake. There is no change of number to account for the two forms spake and spoke.

First Class.

§ 364. Contains the two words fall and fell, hold and held, where the sound of o is changed into that of ĕ. Here must be noticed the natural tendency of a to become o; since the forms in Anglo-Saxon are, Ic fealle, I fall; Ic feoll, I fell; Ic healde, I hold; Ic heold, I held.

Second Class.

§ 365. Here the præterite ends in -ew. Words of this class are distinguished from those of the third Class by the different form of the present tense.

In these words the w has grown out of a g, as may be seen from the Anglo-Saxon forms. The word see (saw) belongs to this class: since, in Anglo-Saxon, we find the forms geseáh and gesegen, and in the Swedish the præterite form is saag.

Third Class.

§ 366. Here an o before w, in the present, becomes e before w in the præterite; as

Fourth Class.

§ 367. Contains the single word let, where a short e in the present remains unchanged in the præterite. In the Anglo-Saxon the present form was Ic læte, the præterite Ic lét.

Fifth Class.

§ 368. Contains the single word beat, where a long e remains unchanged. In Anglo-Saxon the forms were Ic beate, Ic beot.

Sixth Class.

§ 369. Present come, præterite came, participle come. In Anglo-Saxon, cume, com, cumen.

Seventh Class.

§ 370. In this class we have the sounds of the ee, in feet, and of the a in fate (spelt ea or a), changed into o or oo. As several words in this class have a second form in a, the præterite in o or oo will be called the primary, the præterite in a the secondary form.

The præterite of stand was originally long. This we collect from the spelling, and from the Anglo-Saxon form stód. The process that ejects the nd is the same process that, in Greek, converts ὀδόντ-ος into ὀδούς.

All the words with secondary forms will appear again in the eighth class.

Eighth Class.

§ 371. In this class the sound of the ee in feet, and the a in fate (spelt ea), is changed into a. Several words of this class have secondary forms. Further details may be seen in the remarks that come after the following list of verbs.

Here observe,—1. That in speak, cleave, steal, the ea has the same power with the ee in freeze and seethe; so that it may be dealt with as the long (or independent) sound of the i in bid, sit, give.

2. That the same view may be taken of the ea in break, although the word by some persons is pronounced brake. Gabrika, gabrak, Mœso-Gothic; briku, brak, Old Saxon; brece, brac, Anglo-Saxon. Also of bear, tear, swear, wear. In the provincial dialects these words are even now pronounced beer, teer, sweer. The forms in the allied languages are, in respect to these last-mentioned words, less confirmatory; Mœso-Gothic, svara, báira; Old High German, sverju, piru.

3. That the ea in tread was originally long; Anglo-Saxon, tredan, trede, trǽd, treden.

4. Lie.—Here the sound is diphthongal, having grown out of the Anglo-Saxon forms licgan, lǽg, legen.

5. Sat.—The original præterite was long. This we collect from the spelling sate, and from the Anglo-Saxon sǽt.

Ninth Class.

§ 372. A, as in fate, is changed either into the o in note, or the oo in book. Here it should be noticed that, unlike break and swear, &c., there is no tendency to sound the a of the present as ee, neither is there, as was the case with clove and spoke, any tendency to secondary forms in a. A partial reason for this lies in the original nature of the vowel. The original vowel in speak was e. If this was the é fermé of the French, it was a sound from which the a in fate and the ee in feet might equally have been evolved. The vowel sound of the verbs of the present class was that of a for the present and that of ó for the præterite forms; as wace, wóc, grafe, gróf. Now of these two sounds it may be said that the a has no tendency to become the ee in feet, and that the ó has no tendency to become the a in fate.

The sounds that are evolved from the accentuated ó, are the o in note and the oo in book.

Tenth Class.

§ 373. Containing the single word strike, struck, stricken. It is only in the Middle High German, the Middle Dutch, the New High German, the Modern Dutch, and the English, that this word is found in its præterite forms. These are, in Middle High German, streich; New High German, strich; Middle Dutch, strêc; Modern Dutch, strîk. Originally it must have been referable to the ninth class.

Eleventh Class.

§ 374. In this class we first find the secondary forms accounted for by the difference of form between the singular and plural numbers. The change is from the i in bite to the o in note, and the i in pit. Sometimes it is from the i in bit to the a in bat. The Anglo-Saxon conjugation (A) may be compared with the present English (B).

A.

B.

On this list we may make the following observations and statements.

1. That, with the exception of the word slit, the i is sounded as a diphthong.

2. That, with the exception of bat and slat, it is changed into o in the singular and into ĭ in the plural forms.

3. That, with the exception of shone, the o is always long (or independent).

4. That, even with the word shone, the o was originally long. This is known from the final -e mute, and from the Anglo-Saxon form scéan; Mœso-Gothic, skáin; Old Norse, skein.

5. That the o, in English, represents an á in Anglo-Saxon.

6. That the statement last made shows that even bat and slat were once in the same condition with arose and smote, the Anglo-Saxon forms being arás, smát, bát, slát.

Twelfth Class.

§ 375. In this class i is generally short; originally it was always so. In the singular form it becomes ă, in the plural, ŭ.

Upon this list we make the following observations and statements:—

1. That, with the exceptions of bind, find, grind, and wind, the vowels are short (or dependent) throughout.

2. That, with the exception of run and burst, the vowel of the present tense is either the i or e.

3. That i short changes into a for the singular, and into u for the plural forms.

4. That e changes into o in the singular forms; these being the only ones preserved.

5. That the i in bind, &c., changes into ou in the plural forms; the only ones current.

6. That the vowel before m or n is, with the single exception of run, always i.

7. That the vowel before l and r is, with the single exception of burst, always e.

8. That, where the i is sounded as in bind, the combination following is -nd.

9. That ng being considered as a modification of k (the Norse and Mœso-Gothic forms being drecka and drikjan), it may be stated that i short, in the twelfth class, precedes either a liquid or a mute of series k.

From these observations, even on the English forms only, we find thus much regularity; and from these observations, even on the English forms only, we may lay down a rule like the following: viz. that i or u, short, before the consonants m, n, or ck, is changed into a for the singular, and into u for the plural forms; that i long, or diphthongal, becomes ou; that e before l becomes o; and that u before r remains unchanged.

This statement, however, is nothing like so general as the one that, after a comparison of the older forms and the allied languages, we are enabled to make. Here we are taught,

1. That, in the words bind, &c., the i was once pronounced as in till, fill; in other words, that it was the simple short vowel, and not the diphthong ey; or at least that it was treated as such.

When the vowel ĭ of the present took the sound of the i in bite, the ŭ in the præterite became the ou in mouse. From this we see that the words bind, &c., are naturally subject to the same changes with spin, &c., and that, mutatis mutandis, they are so still.

2. That the e in swell, &c., was once ĭ. This we collect from the following forms:—hilpa, Mœso-Gothic; hilfu, Old High German; hilpu, Old Saxon; hilpe, Middle High German; hilpe, Old Frisian. Suillu=swell, Old High German. Tilfu=delve, Old High German; dilbu, Old Saxon. Smilzu, Old High German=smelt or melt. This shows that originally the vowel i ran throughout, but that before l and r it was changed into e. This change took place at different periods in different dialects. The Old Saxon preserved the i longer than the Anglo-Saxon. It is found even in the middle High German; in the new it has become e; as schwelle, schmelze. In one word milk, the original i is still preserved; although in Anglo-Saxon it was e; as melce, mealc=milked, mulcon. In the Norse the change from i to e took place full soon, as svëll=swells. The Norse language is in this respect important.

3. That the o in swoll, holp, was originally a; as

4. That a change between a and o took place by times. The Anglo-Saxon præterite of swelle is sweoll; whilst ongon, bond, song, gelomp, are found in the same language for ongan, band, sang, gelamp.—Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 90.

5. That run is only an apparent exception, the older form being rinn.